FLUID MECHANICS AND
HYDRAULICS
HYDRAULICS
• The course emphasizes the continuity equation, energy equation, and
momentum equation.
• The study of the flow of water through pipes, rivers, and open channels
Fluid Mechanics is basically a study of:
Physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems, and laws governing their behavior.
Action of forces on fluids and the resulting flow pattern
Fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing. It has no definite shape of its
own. It assumes the shape of its container. Liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluids can be classified into two basic types. They are:
1. Ideal Fluid - is a fluid that has no viscosity. It is incompressible in nature.
2. Real Fluids - are compressible in nature. They have some viscosity. Real fluid
are further divided into Newtonian Fluid and Non-Newtonian Fluids.
Density
• The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to
its volume. Thus, the mass per unit volume of the fluid is called density.
• It is denoted by ρ (rho).
• Note value of the density of water is in SI=1000 Kg/m3 and English=1.94 slug/ft3
(1slug =32.174lb)
For an Ideal gas, its density can be found from the
specific gas constant and ideal gas law:
Where:
P=absolute pressure
R= Gas Constant
For air:
R=287J/kg-oK (SI)(Note: Joule=N.m)
R=1716 lb-ft/slug- oR (English)
T = absolute temperature
oK = oC + 273 (SI)
oR = oF+ 460 (English)
Specific Volume:
Specific volume is the volume of a fluid (V) occupied per unit mass (m). It is the
reciprocal of density.
Note:
Unit Weight/Specific Weight:
Specific weight is the weight possessed by unit volume of a fluid. Specific weight
varies from place to place due to the change of acceleration due to gravity (g).
Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is the ratio of specific weight of the given fluid to the specific
weight of standard fluid. It is denoted by the letter ‘S’. It has no unit.
Specific gravity may also be defined as the ratio between the density of the given
fluid to the density of standard fluid.
For Gas:
S = 1 for water
S = 13.6 for mercury if not given
BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The bulk modulus of elasticit of fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the
ratio of the change in unit pressure to the cossressponding volume change per unit of
volume.
∆𝑷
𝑬=
∆𝑽
𝑽
Where,
E = bulk modulus
∆P = change in pressure
∆V = change in volume
V = original volume
Coefficient of Compressibility
is the fraction change in the volume of Fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant
temperature process.
𝟏 𝟏
𝜷= =
𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑬
Sample Problem.
1. A reservoir of glycerin (glyc) has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 m3. Find the glycerin’
weight (W), mass density (𝜌), specific weight (𝛾), and specific gravity (s.g.).
2. The specific gravity of a certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its specific weight (in both pounds per cubic
foot and kilonewtons per cubic meter) and mass density (in both slugs per cubic foot and kilograms per
cubic meter).
3. What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21 oC?
4. Air is Kept at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30 o C in a 500 liter container. What is the
mass of air.
5. If 5.6 m3 of oil weighs 46,800N, calculate the following:
a) Unit weight
b) Density
c) Specific gravity
6. A liquid which is compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000cm3 (1 liter) at 2MPa and a volume of
990cm3 at 2.5MPa.
a) Compute the bulk modulus of elasticity
b) Compute the percentage of volume decreased
c) Compute the coefficient of compressibility
Surface Tension manifested itself by a rise or depression of the liquid at the free
surface edge. Surface tension is also responsible for the creation of the drops and
bubbles. It also responsible for the breakage of a liquid jet into other medium/phase to
many drops (atomization). The surface tension is force per length and is measured by
[N/m] and is acting to stretch the surface.
• Surface Tension of small drop of water.
𝑷𝒅
𝝈=
𝟒
𝜎 – surface tension
𝑃 – difference in pressure within the
droplet and the atmosphere
𝑑 – diameter of droplet
Capillary Rise, a phenomenon in fluid mechanics, describes
the ability of a liquid to flow upwards into narrow tubes or porous
materials against gravity. This occurs due to the interplay of cohesive
and adhesive forces between the liquid and the solid surface, along
with surface tension
𝟐 𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝟒 𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝒉= =
𝝆𝒈𝒓 𝜸𝒅
ℎ - ht. of capillary rise
𝜎 – surface tension
𝛼 − wetting angle
𝛼 = 0° for water
𝛼= 140° for mercury
r – radius of tube
𝜌 𝑔 – specific weight of liquid
• Total Force due to surface tension
𝑭 = 𝝈 𝝅 𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = 𝝈 𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
Sample Problem.
1. The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1 mm. The surface
tension of water at 20°C is equal to 0. 0728 N/m. For a water-glass
interface 𝛼 = 0°.
a. Compute the capillary rise in the tube in mm.
b. Compute the total force due to surface tension.
c. Compute the weight of water above the surface due to surface tension.
2. A small drop of water at 80°F is in contact with the air and has a
diameter of 0.02 in. If the pressure within the droplet is 0.082 psi greater
than the atmosphere, what is the value of the surface tension in lb/ft?
3. Estimate the height to which water at 70°F will rise in a capillary tube of
diameter 0.12 in. having a surface tension of 0.005 lb/ft.
4. [Link] the depression (h) of the mercury in the glass capillary tube
having a diameter of 2mm if the surface tension is 0.514N/m for = 40ﹾ.
[Link] the force caused by surface tension.
[Link] the density of mercury.
UNIT PRESSURE
It is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body surface,
with the force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all
directions
𝑭
P=
𝑨
where: P = is the pressure
F = is the force exerted
by the fluid
A = is the surface area
The pressure on a fluid is measure in two different
systems.
• In one system, it is measured above the absolute
zero or complete vacuum and it is called the Absolute
pressure.
• In other system, pressure is measured above the
atmospheric pressure and is called Gauge pressure.
Gage pressure, Pgage
𝑷 = 𝜸𝒉 Pabs = Pgage + Patm
Absolute pressure, Pabs
Vacuum pressure, Pvacuum
• ABSOLUTE PRESSURE:
It is defined as the pressure which is measured concerning absolute vacuum pressure.
• GAUGE PRESSURE:
It is defined as the pressure, which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric on the scale is
marked as zero.
• VACUUM PRESSURE:
It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure
Vaccum pressure= atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point on the earth’s surface from the weight of air
above it. Under normal condition at sea level, atmospheric pressures are:
Patm – atmospheric pressure (also called as barometric pressure)
Patm = 2166 lb/ft3 = 14.7 Psi = 29.9 inches of Hg = 760 mm Hg
Patm = 101.325 KPa
Note: These atmospheric pressure values will be used when it is not given in the problem.
Pascal’s law
It states that “For fluid at rest, equal pressure
is acting in all direction and normal to the
boundary surface”.
Problem Solving Principle
For any fluid (liquid or gas), Pressure increaseswith a depth.
P2 = P1 + ϒh ----- when we move downward
P1 = P2 – ϒh ---- when we move upward
Alonghomogeneous fluid, pressures are
equal at the same elevation.
P 2 = P1
exception:
Key Principle: If you can move from point 1 to point 2 by
passing through only one fluid, P1 = P2. If not, pressures
are not equal.
P2 ≠ P1
Forfluid whose weight is negligible,
pressure is the same at any point.
Example:
Air whose density is not given; thus, P2 = P1 = P3 = P4
its density is presumed to be negligible.
Pressures below layers of different liquids
PB = PA + ϒ1h1 + ϒ2h2 + ϒ3h3
or Note: If liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, the gage
pressure is zero.
Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of
PB = PA + σ ϒ𝐡 homogeneous liquid with unit weight “ϒ” that will
produce an intensity of pressure “P”.
It is defined by:
h=
𝑷 P= ϒ𝒉
ϒ
Conversion of height of liquid to another liquid
Example:
hw = GSL hL Height of oil = 10 m
GS oil = 0.80
Equivalent height of water =?
Solution:
hw = GSL hL
hw = (0.80) (10) = 8 m
To change height of water into height of any liquid
𝒉𝒘
hL = Example:
𝑮𝑺𝑳 Height of mercury =?
Height of water = 10 m
GS mercury = 13.6
Where: hL = height of Liquid Solution:
ℎ 10
hw = height of Water hHg = 𝑤 = = 0.735 m
𝐺𝑆𝐿 13.60
𝑮𝑺𝑳 = Specific Gravity of Liquid
To
change height of liquid to any height of
another liquid or to change Liquid A to Liquid
B
𝑮𝑺𝑨 𝒉𝑨 ƿ𝑨 𝒉𝑨 ϒ𝑨 𝒉𝑨
hB = or hB = or hB =
𝑮𝑺𝑩 ƿ𝑩 ϒ𝑩
Example: Height of oil to height of
mercury
Height of oil = 10 m, Gs oil = 0.80, Gs Hg
= 13.60
𝐺𝑆 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.10 (10)
Solution: HHg=
𝐺𝑆 𝐻𝑔
=
13.60
=0.588 m
Sample Problem.
1. What is the specific weight of air at 378.675kPa gage and 21 °C?
2. If a depth of liquid of 1m causes a pressure of 7 Kpa, what is the
specific gravity of the liquid?
3. If the pressure 23 m below a liquid is 338.445 KPa, determine its unit
weight, mass density and specific gravity.
4. If the pressure in the air space above an oil (GS = 0.75) surface in a
closed tank is 115 KPa absolute, what is the gage pressure in 2m
below the surface?
5. An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene
(ϒ = 8 KN/m3). Find the pressure at the interface at A and at the bottom
of the tank B.
6. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 KPa
and the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 231.3KPa,
what is the specific gravity of olive oil?
