Internal Combustion

Engines

Lecture 2 - Parameters
ME-439, Fall 2025
Lt Col Zeeshan Asfar
Main Bg
Big End Bg
Thrust Bg
 Nomenclature
Dead Centre:
The position of the working piston and the mechanical parts
which are connected to it, at the moment when the direction
of piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is
called the dead centre.

Top Dead Centre (TDC):

It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the
crank shaft. Also known as Inner Dead Centre (IDC).

Bottom Dead Centre (BDC):

It is the dead centre when the piston is closest to the crank
shaft. Also known as Outer Dead Centre (ODC).
 Nomenclature
Stroke:
It is the linear distance
traveled by the piston
when it moves from one
end of the cylinder to the
other end.

Bore:
The nominal inner
diameter of the working
cylinder. It is usually
denoted by ‘d’ and is
expressed in mm.
Geometric Parameters (note all Formulas)
An imp parameter in classifying
engine size

B = S; Square
B < S; Under square
B > S; Over Square

Ꙇ
Geometric Parameters
An imp parameter in classifying
engine size

B = S; Square
B < S; Under square
B > S; Over Square

Ꙇ
• Very large engines are
u/square, typically
B/S ~ 0.25 - more torque
• Over square – more rpm
Geometric Parameters
s = distance b/w crank axis and wrist/
gudgeon pin axis; instantaneous position
a = crankshaft offset
l = con rod length
θ = crank angle; measured from cyl
center line
s = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
R = l/a
Ratio of con rod length to crank offset
Ꙇ
Small engines ~ 3-4
Large engines ~ 5-10
S = 2a

Ꙇ
Geometric Parameters
• Displaced Volume or Swept Volume:
𝜋 2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑏 𝑆 = Area of piston × stroke
4
• Volume at any crank angle:
𝜋 2
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑏 (𝑙 + 𝑎 − 𝑠)
4
• Clearance Volume: 𝑉𝑐
• Compression ratio r: Geometric Parameters:
1. Bore; b
𝑽 𝒅 + 𝑽𝒄 2. Connecting Rod Length; l
𝑪𝑹 / 𝒓 /𝒓𝒄 = 3. Crank Radius; a
𝑽𝒄 4. Stroke; S
5. Crank angle; 𝜃
6. Piston position; s

Crank angle is zero when

piston is at TDC
Cylinder Volume at any crank position:
𝜋 2
𝑉 𝜃 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑏 𝑦
4
Distance from TDC
y = 𝑙 + 𝑎 − 𝑠 ; R = l/a Ꙇ

s= 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

1
V/ Vc = 1 + 𝑟𝑐 − 1 [R + 1 − cos 𝜃 - (𝑅2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) ]
2
 Example 1
The cubic capacity of a four stroke over square SI engine is
245 cc. the over square ration is 1.1. the clearance volume
is 27.2 cc. calculate the bore, stroke and compression ratio
of the engine.
𝑽𝒅 + 𝑽𝒄 𝝅
𝑽𝒅 = 𝒃𝟐 𝑺
𝒓= 𝟒
𝑽𝒄

Geometric Parameters:
1. Bore; b
2. Connecting Rod Length; l
3. Crank Radius; a
4. Stroke; S
5. Crank angle; 𝜃

Crank angle is zero when piston

is at TDC
The cubic capacity of a four stroke over square SI engine
cylinder is 245 cc. the over square ratio is 1.1. the
clearance volume is 27.2 cc. calculate the bore, stroke and
compression ratio of the engine.
𝜋 2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑏 𝑠
4
𝜋
245 = 𝑏 2 𝑠 ; b/s = 1.1 ; b =1.1s
4

𝑠 3 = 257.93

𝑠 = 6.36 𝑐𝑚; 𝑏 = 1.1𝑠 = 7 𝑐𝑚;

𝑉𝑑 +𝑉𝑐
𝑟= = (245 + 27.2)/ 27.2 = 10
𝑉𝑐
Instantaneous Piston Speed
𝑠 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑈𝑝 = 𝑑𝑠/𝑑𝑡
Mean Piston Speed:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑈𝑝 = 2 𝑆 ( )𝑁
𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in
revolutions per minute.
Ratio of Instantaneous piston speed to mean piston
speed:

𝑈𝑝 𝜃 𝜋 cos 𝜃
= sin 𝜃 1 +
𝑈𝑝 2 2
𝑙
− sin2 𝜃
𝑎

R = Ratio of con rod length to crank offset

Small engines ~ 3-4
Large engines ~ 5-10
Example 2

Toyota 3L six cylinder SI engine that operates on a four

stroke cycle at 3600 RPM. The compression is 9.5, the
length of connecting rod is 16.6 cm and the engine is
square. At this speed, combustion ends at 20𝑜 aTDC.
Calculate:
1. Cylinder bore and stroke length
2. Average piston speed
3. Clearance volume of one cylinder
4. Piston speed at the end of the combustion
5. Distance the piston has travelled from TDC at the end of
combustion
6. Volume in the combustion chamber at the end of the
combustion
Brake Torque and Power
• Engine torque is normally measured with a
dynamometer. The engine is clamped on a test bed
and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor
(em, hydraulic or mechanical)

• The power delivered by the engine and absorbed by

the dynamometer is the product of torque and
angular speed:
P = 𝜏𝜔 ; 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁
Hydraulic Dynamometer
Brake Torque and Power
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑊ሶ 𝑏 = 𝑃 = 𝜏𝜔 = 𝜏 𝑁. 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑁( )
𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Brake Power: 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑃
• Engine Torque: 𝜏

indicated power = brake power + friction power

𝑖𝑝 = 𝑏𝑝 + 𝑓𝑝

brake power = indicated power - friction power

𝑏𝑝 = 𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑝
Brake Torque and Power
indicated power = brake power + friction power
𝑖𝑝 = 𝑏𝑝 + 𝑓𝑝

Energy losses in
exhaust, coolant,
radiation etc)
Energy in Fuel
(kW) Energy losses in
friction, pumping,
alternator =
Indicated parasitic load
Power (kW) Brake Power
(kW)

Energy Distribution
• In IC engine work is generated by the gases in the combustion
chamber of the cylinder
• Work is the result of a force acting through a distance.
• Force due to gas pressure on the moving piston generates the
work in an IC engine cycle.

where:
P = pressure in combustion chamber
Ap = area against which the pressure acts (i.e., the piston face)
x = distance the piston moves
• Pressure data can be used to calculate the work
transfer from the gas to the piston.
• The cylinder pressure and corresponding cylinder
volume plotted on a p-V diagram/ indicator diagram
• Help visualize the work done by the engine and the
power it produces
• The indicated work per cycle (per cylinder) is
obtained by integrating around the curve to obtain
the area enclosed on the p-V diagram:
𝑊 = ර 𝑝𝑑𝑉
SI ENGINE
Indicated Work per cycle
W= ‫𝑉𝑑𝑝 ׯ‬
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑊𝑝
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐵
Wp - pumping work, positive
for turbo/ superchargers,
otherwise negative

In SI engines - pumping work

loss is max at idle.
Not the case in CI engines –
no throttle control
Mechanical Efficiency
• The ratio of the brake power to the indicated power in
the combustion chamber
𝑊ሶ𝑏
𝜂=
𝑊ሶ 𝑖
Generally b/w 75-85% at high speed at wide open throttle
Mean Effective Pressure
• The mean effective pressure is the theoretical constant
pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the power
stroke, would produce the same net work as actually
developed in one cycle
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

• Net Work done: The total work produced by the engine

during one complete cycle
• Swept Volume: The volume displaced by the piston during
one complete cycle.

• For two engines of equal displacement volume, the one

with a higher mean effective pressure would produce the
greater net work and, if the engines run at the same
speed, greater power
Mean Effective Pressure
• Another way of thinking about it: mean effective
pressure is the work done per unit displacement
volume.
• Can be expressed as:
• Indicated mean effective pressure (imep)
The net work per unit displacement volume done by the
gas during compression and expansion
• Brake mean effective pressure (bmep)
The external shaft work per unit volume done by the
engine
Mean Effective Pressure
• Mean effective pressure is a good parameter to
compare engines for design output because it is
independent of engine size and/or speed
• MEP is calculated based on the net work done per unit of
swept volume. Larger engines (with larger swept volumes)
will not automatically have higher MEPs if they are less
efficient.
• MEP is a measure of average pressure over the power
stroke. It doesn't directly depend on the speed at which the
engine is operating.
Brake mean effective pressure
Expressed in terms of work:
2𝑊ሶ 𝑏
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (for 4 stroke)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁
𝑊ሶ 𝑏
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (for 2 stroke)
𝑉𝑑 𝑁
Expressed in terms of torque:
4𝜋𝜏
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (for 4 stroke)
𝑉𝑑
2𝜋𝜏
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (for 2 stroke)
𝑉𝑑
Volumetric Efficiency
• Volumetric efficiency is a ratio or percentage of what
quantity of air enters actually in the cylinders during
suction process to the actual capacity of the cylinder
under static conditions.
• Your engine will not use the full volume 100%
because of friction losses and leakage.
• Volumetric efficiency above 100% can be reached by
using forced supercharging or turbocharging.
• Remember more air means that more fuel can be
burnt and more power can be derived from the same
stroke.
Volumetric Efficiency
Defined as the mass of fuel and air inducted into the
cylinder divided by the mass that would occupy the
displaced volume at the density 𝜌𝑎 at atmospheric
conditions outside the engine.
• Volumetric Efficiency is given by:
𝑚𝑎
𝜂𝑣 =
𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑
Example
• A four-stroke, two-cylinder internal combustion
engine has a total cubic capacity (displacement
volume) of 500 cc. The engine operates at a speed of
4000 RPM. A dynamometer measures the brake
torque to be 25 N·m.
• Calculate the brake mean effective pressure (bmep) of
the engine.
• Calculate the brake power 𝑊ሶ 𝑏 of the engine
Solution
•Engine type: four-stroke, two-cylinder
•Total displacement volume (𝑉𝑑):

500 cc = 500×10-6m3
Engine speed: 4000 RPM
Brake torque (𝜏) : 25 Nm

𝑃=𝜏𝜔 ; 𝜔=2𝜋𝑁

𝑊ሶ 𝑏 =𝑃=𝜏(𝑁.𝑚)2𝜋(𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑟𝑒𝑣)𝑁(𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠𝑒𝑐)

4𝜋𝜏
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = (for 4 stroke)
𝑉𝑑
Solution
4𝜋 (25 𝑁.𝑚)
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
500 × 10−6 𝑚3

𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 628,318.53 Pa ; 1 bar = 105 Pa

𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 = 6.28 bar

N = 4000/ 60 (rev/sec) = 66.66 rev/sec

𝜔=2𝜋𝑁 = 2 x 𝜋 x 66.66 = 418.88 rad/ sec

𝑃=𝜏𝜔 = 25 N.m x 418.88 rad/sec = 10,472 W or

𝑃 = 10.47 kW
THANK YOU