44 Fl~?

zdnn~entals
of Power Systen~Protection

well as during a three-phase fault. Thus, the setting of this relay, which is in the residual .
current path, can be made independent of load current and can indeed be much smaller
than the load current.
Further, as illustrated in Figure 2.18, it is not necessary to use all the three relays -
for detection and protection against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault
relay without affecting the performance of the scheme. In Figure 2.18, the relay in the
phase b has been removed.

T r ~ pcolt

R, Rg R'
Trlp battery Ground fault
OC relay R,

contacts

Figure 2.18 Two-phase fault relays and one ground fault relay for OC protection i
of a three-phase feeder.
@ i
Table 2.2 shows the operation of relays for all the 11 shunt faults for OC schemes of :i
.i

t
Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18, which shows that all the 11 shunt faults are catered for by .I
2
these schemes. 1
. !I
I
2.9 Directional Over-current Relay ,i,
B

Figure 2.19 shows a double-end-fed power system. The zones to be generated by the relays Ii
are also shown. Consider that we have only over-current relays a t our disposal. Will it be F
.i
possible to implement the desired zones using simple over-current relays? In order to
answer this question, let us focus on OC relays a t bus C. Note that OC relays operate on
i
the magnitude of fault current and cannot sense the direction of the fault.
Consider fault F,. As per the desired zones, only CBs 4 and 5 should trip. However, j
t
it can be easily seen that if plain OC relays are used, CBs 3, 4, 5, and 6 will all trip as ?
$
'1
-- . -- -- ~ - ~ ~~~ ~~ ..,---..T.--- .~, +
-, -'i
 Over-current Protecrion o f T~ans~?~ission
Lines 45

the fault will be seen by OC reiays at these !ocations. Thus, the desired zones are not
generated. The desired relay response is shown in Tabie 2.3 with respect to faults Fa
and F,.

Figure 2.19 Need for directional relay.

Table 2.3 Response of OC relays to generate desired zones of protection

Direction of Desired Direction of Desired

Fault fault power response fault power response of
flow at bus C of OC relay flow at bus C OC relay
as seen from 5 at 5 as seen from 6 at 6
Fo Away Trip Towards Restrain
from bus C bus C
Fb Towards Restrain Away Trip
bus C from bus C

Thus it can be seen from Table 2.3, that whenever the fault power flows away from
the bus, it is desired that the OC relay should trip. It should restrain if it sees the fault
power flowing towards the bus.

2.9.1 Other Situations Where Directional OC Relays are Necessary

There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use directional relays to
supervise OC relays. One such situation is a single-end-fed system of parallel feeders,
shown in Figure 2.20, where a fault on any of the parallel lines is fed not only from the
faulted line but from the healthy line as well.
If directional relays are not provided, in conjunctio~with OC relays, then the desired
zones will not be generated. This will result in both lines being tripped out for any fault
on any one of the lines.
I t may be noted that directional relays with tripping direction away from the bus will
be required at locations '2' and '3' in Figure 2.20. However, at locations '1' and '4',
non-directional over-current relays will suffice. Since directional relay units cost more
and aiso need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when absolutely necessary.
46 Fu~rda,ne~lrals
of Power Svsre171Prorecnorr

(a) Parallel feeders, singleend-fed system 4~oad

++ 1_------.-.--------------------------2_-
+,T"pping direction
E :---_
-
::
................................ --n--'
*

4 -a_-------- 3 ----------
---.--------
--- -.
,_--

4+ ';j
?
(b) Desired zones and tripping direction of OC relays !

Figure 2.20 Single-end-fed parallel feeder needs directional OC protect~on.

Consider the ring main feeder system shown in Figure 2.21. This is another situation
where directional supervision of OC relays is called for. It is well known that the ring
main feeder allows supply to be maintained to all the loads in spite of fault on any section
of the feeder. A fault in any section causes only the CBs associated with that section to
trip out, and because of the ring topology, power flows from the alternate path.

$\
Load - / Load

Figure 2.21 Protection of ring feeder using directional OC relays

Characteristics of directional relay
4 directional relay can be compared to a contact making wattmeter. A wattmeter develops
maximum positive torque when the current and voltage supplied to the current coil and
the pressure coil are in phase. If we define the maximum torque angle (MTA) as the angle
between the voltage and current at which the relay develops maximum torque, then a
wattmeter can be called a directional relay with MTA of zero degree.
The phasor diagram for a directional relay is depicted in Figure 2.23.
!

From CT

,.Position of lCc for . .~

i
,,' maximum torque
I
i '

j
I.
1 ;
..
j
$ 8
, ,
!
Operating torque = K , cos ( 8 -
@pC @CC
= K2 \ipc ICc cos ( 9 - T)
7)
'1i
I'. t
' b
I
i
Figure 2.23 Phasor diagram for a directional relay based on induction principle. i1
i
Vpc is the voltage applied to the pressure coil. The current drawn by the pressure coil :/ .,
lags the voltage by a large angle BPc
IPC -11 ,
As the fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction, the current undergoes ,i
a large change in its phase whereas the phase of the voltage does not change substantially. ,I
Thus, voltage signal is the reference against which the phase angle of the current is .i;
measured. t.
Now, in a relay based on induction principle, the two fluxes responsible for torque 8
1
production, and $cc should be shifted in phase by 90°,for them to produce maximum i
torque. The torque becomes zero when the current phasor is 290" away from the MTA i
;
 Ove,--cu~.r-e~zr
Protecrion af Transmission Llnes 49
--
position. Thls e v e s the direction of the current phasor for max~mum torque, the
maximum torque angle T, and the boundary between tripping and restraining regions on
the phasor d~agram.
The operating torque of the directional relay can be expressed as:
Operating torque To,,,t,,, x @PC @CC sin ( 0 + 6pC)
From phasor diagram it can be seen that:
OpC + = 90'

:. a $pC kc sin (8 + 90" -

Toperating 7)

Q $pc @cCsin [(0 - T) + 90°]

= Kl Spc $CCcos (8 - d
Since $pc a VPc and @cC Q Ice
Toperating= K2 VPCICCcos ( 0 - 7)

From the phasor diagram, it can be easily seen that the maximum torque angle T is
given by
T = 90" - 6?pC

Since the pressure coil is highly inductive, the value of 6pC is of the order of 70" to 80".
This gives MTA of 20" to 10". However, 0pc and hence T can be adjusted to any desired
value if an external resistance or capacitance is introduced into the pressure coil circuit.

2.9.3 Application of Directional Relay to a Three-phase feeder

In case of application of directional relays to a three-phase feeder, phase faults need to be
considered separately from ground faults. There are various possibilities of energizing
these relays; hence the various alternatives need to be carefully considered. The
directional relay must meet the following requirements:
1. The relay must operate for forward faults.
2. The relay must restrain during reverse faults.
3. The relay must not operate during faults other than for which it has been
provided, i.e. the relay must not maloperate.

Directional phase fault protection

Consider a directional relay for protection against all phase faults involving phase a ,
i.e. a-b, a-b-g, a-c, a-c-g, a-b-c, and a-b-c-g faults. Let us consider an a-b fault. It is logical
to choose current I, to energize the current coil. However, the choice of voltage to be
applied to the pressure coil is not immediately apparent. Figures 2.24 and 2.25 explore
the possibility of using voltage Vd and V,, for the pressure coil of the directional relay
catering to phase faults involving phase a. From Figure 2.24, it can be seen that the
voltage Vabtends to collapse duringa-b fault. Further, the angle between V,b and I, during
50 F~~~~do~rrenrrils
of Power System Protection

fault i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y large. F o r t h e iMTA a n g l e s h o w n , t h e r e l a y does n o t develop p o s i t i v e

t o r q u e during f o r w a r d f a u l t . F r o m these figures, it c a n b e easily seen that b o t h these
voltages a r e n o t suitable, as t h e y d o n o t m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t set o u t in S e c t i o n 2.9.3.

Phase
sequence

Restrain

vt vbt vb
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

0
0

relay Trip
Reverse fault
(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and
(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with V,, energized by I, and 'J,b

Figure 2.24 E x p l o r i n g t h e possibility o f energizing the pressure coil o f phase a

directional relay w i t h voltage VOb.

, .
..
sequence
la "a, f
vca, 1 vab. f
UPF position
Of I,
Forward fault

vc v,, v,
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

0
0
0
0

1a.t
relay Trip Reverse fault
MTA line

(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and

(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with V,, energized by I , and V,,.

Figure 2.25 Exploring the possibility of energizing pressure coil o f phase a directional
relay w i t h voltage V,,.
 Over-cr;r!-elir Protecrio~lof Tro~~sr~~lssio!l
Liner 51

Figure 2.26 shows that the voltage Vb,happens t o be the correct choice. Since the unity
power factor !UPF> position of I, leads Vbc by 90°, chis connection is known as the 90"
connection.

Phase
sequence

UPF position
of I, '8. f
Trip
MTA line Folward
Restrain

(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

la

Vbc
- Directional
relay
MTA = r
Trip
k 0
I ,f
,0

Reverse fault
0
0

(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and

(b) Correct energization of phase a directional relay reverse fault for phase a directional relay
with I, and V,, resulting in the 90" connection energized by I, and Vbc(the 90" connection).
Figure 2.26 Correct energization of directional relay: 90" connection

The 30" and the 60" connections

As already pointed out there are other possibilities for energizing the voltage coils of
directional relays. However, all the possible voltages may not meet the requirement of no
,maloperations. Hence, the choice has been narrowed down to three. The other two
possible voltages, for phase a directional relay, are V,, and (V,,+ V,,).These are known
as the 30" and the 60' connections because of the angular relationship between the unity
power factor (UPn position of & and these voltages during the pre-fault condition.
Table 2.4 summarizes various combinations of voltages and currents to be fed to
directional phase fault relays catering to phase faults involving the three phases, for the
90°, 30" and 60" connections.

Table 2.4 Summary of phase fault relay excitation

Type o f Phase faults Phase faults Phase faults

connection inuoluing phase, a inuoluzng phase, b involving phase, c
Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage
90" 10 Vbc Ib Vca Ic Vmb
30" I, Vm Ib Vb, 1, VC~
60" I, Vm + Vbe .- Ib Vhn + vc,~ Ic x b f Vnb
52 of Power System Protectro~r
Frr~rdarne~zmls

Directional ground fault protection

The directional ground fault relay develops correct tripping tendency when fed by the
residual current I. and residual voltage Vo. This is shown in Figure 2.27.

Phase
sequence
'8
= Ea - IaZs
4 = 31, . I
,
i
i

I
i
E, = V, E, = V,
(a) Phasor dlagram for a-g fault
i
h .. Restrain

MTA line

-
(b) Phasor relationships between actuat~ngquant~tiesduring foward and reverse faults L
/
Ground fault

(V, + Vb + V,) = 3V0 1- Directional

relay Trip
(I, + lb + fC)

(c) Directional ground fault

= 310
-w
relay energized by residual voltage and current i

Figure 2.27 Directional ground fault relay energization. 1

I

I
2.9.4 Directional O C Protection of a Three-phase Feeder i

Figure 2.28 shows a three-phase feeder protected by directional relays supervised by OC

relays. i
$
 Ground fault OC

Figure 2.28 Complete scheme for directional OC protection of a three-phase feeder

2.9.5 Directional Protection Under Non-fault Conditions (Reverse

Power Relay)
There are situations where directional relays have to be used under non-fault conditions.
Such an application of directional relay exists in reverse power protection of a turbo-
alternator. To distinguish between the two, let u s call these directional relays as power
directional relay.
These situations are different from those where directional relays are applied during
fault conditions in the manner that, in case of the power relays, there is no collapse of
system voltage. Directional relays for short circuit protection are so connected that they
develop maximum operating torque under fault conditions. However, directional power
relays are so connected that they develop maximum torque when direction of power flow
reverses.
54 of Power J~sronProrccnon
F~~~z~l~~iize~~ruis

Consider a power relay with an MTA of 30" Figure (2.29). In order to be used as a
power relay it can be fed with I, and Vc,.
It can he seen that I, leads Vc, by 30" during reverse power flow, thus developing
maximum tripping torque.

Forward Power directional relay

power No trip
I

Reverse
power Trip

'8 - Directional relay

MTA = 30"

Figure 2.29 Connections of a power directional relay with MTA of 30".

2.1 0 Drawbacks of Over-current Relays

The reach and operating time of the over-current relay depend upon the magnitude of
fault current. The fault current that would result in case of a fault at a particular location
depends upon:
1. The type of fault, i.e. whether it is a ground fault or a phase fault
2. The source impedance as shown in Flgure 2.30.

ZS+ Large

T U inversp +;-a Fault L-L-G

Zs + Small OC relay L-L-G

L-G fault
x T ree-phase fault

1 Fault location

Figure 2.30 Fault current and reach is a function of fault type and source impedance.
 Since neither the type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable, the reach of
the over-current relay keeps on changing depending upon the source conditions and the
type of fault. Thus, even though the relays are set with gieat care, since their reach is
subject to variations, they are likely to suffer from loss of selectivity Such a loss of
selectivity can be tolerated to some extent in the low-voltage distribution systems, where
the only objective to be met is the continuity of supply to the consumer. However in EHV
interconnected system (grid), loss of selectivity can lead to danger to the stability of the
power system, in addition to large disruptions to loads. Therefore, over-current relays
cannot be relied upon as a primary means of protection in EHV systems.
Another principle of relaying, known as distance measurement, offers a much more
accurate reach, which is independent of source conditions and type of fault. This is
discussed in Chapter 6.

Review Questions
1. What are the necessary conditions for two alternating fluxes acting on a common
rotor (a) to produce some torque and (b) to produce maximum torque?
2. What are the situations where DTOC relays are preferred over IDMT relays?
3. What is the difference between plug setting and pick-up value of an OC relay?
4. What are the drawbacks of using DTOC relays for the protection of long feeders?
5. Why does the fault current vary between a minimum and a maximum at any
location?
6. The generator impedance does not affect the fault current to a great extent in the
low-voltage distribution system. Explain.
7. Explain the overshoot time of a relay and its significance.
8. What do you mean by loss of selectivity between two OC relays in adjoining line
sections? What are its causes?
9. While setting the pick-up value, the minimum fault current at the end of the
adjoining feeder needs to be considered; but while setting the TMS the maximum
fault current at the beginning of the next section needs to be considered. Explain.
10. What do you mean by an OC relay, supervised by a directional element?
11. What is the meaning- of the term 'directional' vis a vis directional relaying?
12. What is meant by maximum torque angle vis a vis a directional relay?
13. How will you adjust the MTA of a directional relay?
14. What is the difference between the reverse power relay and the directional relay?
15. Why polarizing voltage from a healthy phase is used in three-phase directional
relays?
16. While different connections like 90",30°,and 60" exist in case of directional phase
fault relays, why is it that no such connections exist for directional ground fault
relays?
17. What are the situations where there is no need to use directional OC relays and
the situations where directional relays must be used?
18. Give the procedure for time setting of relays on a ring main feeder system.
56 of Porver Systern Prorecriorz
F~lr~dan~enrals

Problems
1. The pressure coil of a directional relay has an impedance of (100 + j 274.74) ohms.
What is the MTA for this relay? What change will have to be made to the pressure
circuit so as to change this angle to (a) 30" and ( b ) 15"?
2. For the system shown below, design the complete OC protection using the IDMT
relays. Thus, decide the CT ratios, the plug settings and the TMS a t all locations.

Losd 115 A 80 A 100 A 77 AT

Minimum fault current 1500 A 1000 A 780 A 585 A 390 A
Maximum fault current 6000 A 5000 A 3000 A 2000 A 1000 A