B.
Tech 3rd Semester Petroleum Engineering
Subject: Chemistry of Petroleum
Full Marks: 35 (End Sem) + 15 (In Sem) = 50 (Total)
Topic
Corrosion and corrosion control
Sub Topics:
Principles of corrosion, methods of corrosion control, cathodic and anodic protection, corrosion
inhibitors. Surface coatings, Corrosion Monitoring. Case Studies of Corrosion in Petroleum
industry including metals and alloys used in Petroleum Industry.
By
Dr. Gitalee Sharma
Assistant Professor
Department of Engineering Chemistry
DUIET
Principles of corrosion
Corrosion is the process of gradual deterioration of a metal from its surface due to the
unwanted chemical or electrochemical interaction of metal with its environment.
For example: Formation of a layer of reddish scale of hydrated ferric oxide on the surface of
iron, also known as “Rusting of iron”.
2Fe (s) + 3/2 O2 (g) + xH2O (l) Fe2O3.xH2O
Chemical Composition of Rust
2Fe (s) + 3/2 O2 (g) + xH2O (l) Fe2O3.xH2O
Chemical Composition of Rust
Fig 1: Rusting of iron.
Cause of Corrosion
Corrosion is a spontaneous slow chemical interaction of metal or alloy with its environment,
resulting in the formation of one of its compounds such as oxide, hydrated oxide, carbonate,
sulphide, sulphate, etc. Extraction of metals from their ores is an endothermic process. Pure
metals, being highly energetic, have natural tendency to revert back to their combined states.
Metal in the earth crust are found in the form of their ores, which is a thermodynamically
stable state. On extracting metal from its ores, high energy is involved. The pure metal thus
obtained is thermodynamically unstable and tries to attain thermodynamic stability by
reacting with air or moisture present in the environment. This defines the cause of corrosion.
Ore of Metal Metallurgical Operation Pure Metal Environment
(Thermodynamically (Thermodynamically Corroded Metal
stable state) Energy unstable state
Effects of Corrosion
The effects of corrosion are many and varied. These effects are more pronounced than the
simple loss of metal as they affect the safe and efficient functioning of equipments or
[Link] major harmful effects of corrosion can be summarized as follows:
1. Loss of metal or reduced thickness: This reduced thickness may lead to lack of mechanical
strength, leading to structural breakdown. (e.g., bridges, cars, aircrafts).
2. Time is lost in making available the parts required for constructing the industrial
equipment.
3. The value of the goods is reduced owing to degraded appearance.
4. The fluids stored in pipes or storage tanks get contaminated due to chemical reactions (e.g.,
beer gets cloudy when small quantities of heavy metals are released by corrosion).
5. Important surface properties of metals are affected. These properties include frictional,
bearing properties, ease of fluid flow, electrical conductivity, surface reflectivity and heat
transfer.
6. Mechanical damage to valves, pumps, etc., or blockage of pipes by solid corrosion products.
Types of Corrosion
Corrosion is mainly of two types.
Dry Corrosion and Wet corrosion
1. Dry or Chemical Corrosion
Dry corrosion involves direct attack of atmospheric gases on metal in the absence of moisture
liquid phase, that is, conducting (aqueous) medium. The corrosive media include vapors,
gases, etc. . Corrosion on metallic surface is due to direct reaction of atmospheric gases such
as oxygen; halogens; oxides of sulphur, nitrogen; hydrogen sulphide and fumes evolved due
to chemical reactions with metal. There are three main types of dry corrosion.
i. Oxidation Corrosion (reaction with oxygen)
Compared to other gases and chemicals, it is found that oxygen is mainly responsible for the
corrosion of most metallic substances. Few metals such as alkali and alkaline earth metals
react vigorously with oxygen to form oxides at low temperatures even in the absence of
moisture. All metals are oxidized at higher temperatures with the exception of silver, gold and
platinum. The corrosion that results from direct attack of oxygen on the metal at low or high
temperatures, generally in the absence of moisture is called oxidation corrosion. The reactions
taking place during oxidation corrosion involve oxidation of metal by loss of electrons and
reduction of oxygen to oxide ions by gain of electrons:
Metals get oxidised and the electrons released lead to the reduction of O 2. Metal oxide is
formed and it restricts further oxidation. If the metal oxide barrier is sufficiently porous, slow
inward diffusion of the oxide layer through the metal leading to further oxidation.
ii. Corrosion by other gases
Corrosion by other gases such as Cl2, SO2, H2S, NOx: In dry atmosphere, these gases react with
metal and form corrosion products, which may be protective or non-protective. Dry Cl2 reacts
with Ag and forms AgCl which is a protective layer, while SnCl4 is volatile. In petroleum
industries at high temperatures, H2S attacks steel forming FeS scale which is porous and
interferes with normal operations.
2Ag + Cl2 2AgCl (Protective layer Formed)
Sn + 2Cl2 SnCl4 (Non-Protective layer Formed)
(Volatile)
Sn undergoes excessive corrosion
iii. Liquid Metal Corrosion
It occurs when liquid metal is allowed to flow over solid metal at high temperature. It leads
to weakening of solid metal due to (i) its dissolution in liquid metal (ii) penetration of liquid
metal into solid metal. In several industries, molten metal passes through metallic pipes and
causes corrosion due to dissolution or internal penetration. For Example: Na metal leads to
corrosion of Cd in nuclear reactor.
2. Wet or Electrochemical corrosion
Wet corrosion usually occurs in conducting liquid (aqueous) phase. This type of corrosion
occurs when the metal comes in contact with a conducting liquid or when two dissimilar
metals are immersed or dipped partly in a solution. In other words, wet corrosion involves
electrochemical attack on metals in aqueous environments. This corrosion is more prevalent
than dry corrosion. According to the electrochemical theory of corrosion, the corrosion of a
metal like iron exposed to the environment may be thought of as a three-step process.
Fig 2. Corrrosion Cell
1. Formation of large number of galvanic cells (Figure 2), that is, the development of anodic
and cathodic regions on the same metal. The electrons released at the anode are absorbed
at cathode.
2. Corrosion (oxidation) takes place at the anodic region.
3. Reduction of O2 (air) in presence of water to hydroxyl [OH-] ions takes place at cathodic
region.
The reactions involved in the galvanic cell are as follows:
1. Anodic reaction: Metal undergoes oxidation (corrosion) with release of electrons:
At the cathodic region, electrons are absorbed and cause reduction of constituents.
2. Cathodic reactions: These reactions are dependent on the constituents of the corrosion
medium. There are three possible ways in which reduction takes place:
• If the solution is aerated and almost neutral, oxygen is reduced in presence of H 2O to
OH− ions.
• If the solution is deaerated and almost neutral, H2 is liberated along with OH− ions.
• If the solution is deaerated and acidic, H+ ions are reduced to hydrogen gas
Difference between Dry and Wet Corrosion
[Link] Dry Corrosion Wet Corrosion
1. Involves direct attack of atmospheric Involves electrochemical
gases on metal in the absence of moisture attack on metals at
liquid phase different environment.
2. Less Prevalent More Prevelent
3. The corrosive media includes vapors, The corrosive media includes conducting
gases etc. liquid (aqueous) phase
Types of Wet Corrosion
1. Differential Metal Corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion)
Differential metal corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other
in a corrosive environment. The metal with low reduction potential (anode) undergoes
oxidation (corrosion), while metal with high reduction potential (cathode) undergoes
reduction. The greater the electrode potential difference, the higher is the corrosion rate.
Thus, it is the anodic metal that always undergoes corrosion and cathodic metal is unattacked.
Examples
1. Buried iron pipeline connected to zinc bar. 2. Steel pipe connected to copper plumbing. 3.
Steel propeller shaft in bronze bearing. 4. Zinc coating on mild steel. 5. Lead–tin solder around
copper wires.
Preventive Measures 1. Placing a thin layer of an insulator between two metals or materials.
2. Selecting materials having very less potential difference.
2. Differential Aeration Corrosion
Differential aeration corrosion occurs when a metal is exposed to differential air
concentrations or oxygen concentrations. The part of the metal exposed to higher oxygen
concentration acts as cathodic region and the part of the metal exposed to lower oxygen
concentration acts as anodic region and undergoes corrosion.
Example
1. Half-immersed iron plate in aqueous solution. 2. Steel pipe carrying any liquid exposed to
atmosphere. 3. Ocean going ships. 4. Steel storage tanks.
Preventive Measures
1. Using metallic coating, electroless plating or chemical conversion methods. 2. Maintaining
the material’s own protective film.
Types of Differential Aeration Corrosion
1. Waterline Corrosion
Waterline corrosion is a case of differential aeration corrosion. Ocean going ships and water
storage steel tanks undergo this type of corrosion. The metal portion just below the waterline
is more anodic to ortion above the water line. Therefore, the metal just below the waterline
undergoes corrosion.
2. Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is often associated with a small volume of stagnant solution or electrolyte
trapped in crevices of joints, rivets, bolts, gasket surfaces, lap joints, nuts, washers or in
surface deposits. This corrosion occurs when oxygen cannot penetrate a crevice, leading to
set up of a differential aeration cell. Corrosion occurs rapidly in the area with less oxygen.
Preventive Measures
1. Increasing resistance by using alloys that have high percentage of chromium, molybdenum
and/or nitrogen.
2. Design and fabricate to avoid crevices.
3. Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion involves localized attack usually in chloride medium. This corrosion arises
when a small portion of the metallic surface is either defective (with cracks) or occupied by
dust/scale/sand/water drop.
Preventive Measures
1. Removing all contaminants, especially free-iron by passivation.
2. Designing and fabricating to avoid trapped and pooled liquids.
4. Stress Corrosion
Mechanical forces within the metal bring about stress corrosion. The internal stress of metal
arises when the metal is subjected to mechanical operations such as pressing, hammering,
bending, welding or riveting. The stress can also be external stress that acts on the metal
during service conditions. The metal atoms under stress are always at higher energy levels as
compared to stress-free atoms. The stressed part of the metal, therefore, becomes more
reactive than the stress-free part. As a result, a galvanic cell is formed with the stressed part
acting as anode, and stress-free part acting as cathode. Under specific corrosion
environments, the stressed part undergoes corrosion, initiating the crack.
Examples
Cracking of brass and caustic embrittlement of steel boilers
Preventive Measures
1. Applying protective coatings.
2. Using corrosion inhibitors.
5. Intergranular corrosion
Generally observed in alloys, this corrosion involves an attack on the grain boundaries of a
metal or alloy, where the formation of a corrosion product takes place. This corrosion is not
observed externally, and leads to sudden unanticipated failure of the material.
Example
When stainless steel (18% Cr, 8% Ni) containing more than 0.1% carbon is heated to high
temperature and cooled slowly or held at 650°C for a short interval of time, a rapid reaction
occurs between carbon and chromium. Chromium carbide, thus formed, precipitates at the
grain boundaries and results in the formation of galvanic cells. Chromium-rich grain centers
act as the cathode, while the grain boundaries act as anode and undergo corrosion. This type
of corrosion is also called grain-boundary corrosion.
Preventive measures
1. Selecting an alloy type resistant to intergranular corrosion.
2. Avoiding heat treatments or service exposure that make the material susceptible.
3. Applying protective coatings.
6. Microbiological corrosion
This corrosion involves degradation of materials by bacteria, moulds and fungi or their
byproducts. Some types of bacteria consume oxygen and cause differential aeration type of
system, which results in corrosion. The corrosion occurs at the zones poor in oxygen
concentration.
Example
Corrosion of steel pipelines in waterlogged neutral ground containing little oxygen.
Preventive measures
1. Selecting resistant materials.
2. Applying cathodic protection.
7. Soil corrosion
Underground pipes, cables, tank bottoms, etc., get corroded due to moisture, pH of soil, ionic
species like chlorides and micro-organisms like bacteria. It is further enhanced by differential
aeration of various parts of the soil.
8. Erosion corrosion
Due to mechanical wear and tear, there is relative motion of the corrosive liquid over the
metal surface. This motion increases the rate of corrosion on the surface of a metal and is
called erosion corrosion. It is most common in copper tubes.
Factors influencing Rate of Corrosion
Rate of Corrosion depends on two factors
i. Nature of the metal
ii. Nature of the Environment
i. Nature of the metal
a. Purity of Metal: Less pure metal, faster corrosion
b. Physical State of metal: Larger size of metal, less solubility so less corrosion.
c. Nature of the oxide film: It is determined by the specific volume ratio
Specific volume ratio = Volume of the oxide Film/ Volume of the metal
Smaller the Specific Volume ratio, greater is the corrosion.
d. Position in Galvanic Series: The tendency of a metal to undergo corrosion decreases with
increase in reduction potential (galvanic potential). Metals such as Li, Na, Mg, Zn, etc., have
low reduction potentials and therefore undergo severe corrosion in corrosive environment.
The noble metals with high reductionpotential, such as Ag, Au, Pt, etc., are less susceptible
for undergoing corrosion.
e. Relative areas of anode and cathode:
Rate of corrosion ∞ Cathodic area/ anodic area
f. Solubilities of the product of solution: Insoluble corrosion products act as physical barrier
and suppresses further corrosion.
g. Volatility of Corrosion products: More volatile the corrosion products are more the
corrosion is.
ii. Nature of the Environment
1. pH: In general, lower the pH of the corrosion medium, higher is the corrosion rate. At pH
> 10, corrosion of Fe practically ceases due to formation of a protective coating of hydrous
oxides. However, metals like Al, Zn undergo fast corrosion in highly alkaline solution. If the
pH < 3, severe corrosion occurs even in absence of air due to the continuous evolution of
hydrogen at the cathodic region.
2. Temperature: The rate of any chemical reaction increases with rise in temperature.
Increase in temperature increases the conductance of the medium, reduces passivity of the
metal, and thereby increases the rate of corrosion.
3. Conductance of the medium: Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction, which involves
electron transfer (conduction). The presence of conducting species in the atmosphere
increases the corrosion rate. This rate is more in a wet atmosphere (more conducting) than
in the dry atmosphere.
4. Humidity: Rate of corrosion is low at low-relative humidity. It increases with increase in
humidity up to a certain value called critical humidity; but corrosion abruptly increases
above critical humidity.
Corrosion Control methods
1. Design and material selection
• In any design, the greater the number of angles, corners, edges and internal surface, the
more difficult it becomes for efficient surface treatment. Hence, as far as possible, L-, T- and
U-shaped profiles in construction should be minimized.
• No corrosion occurs without the presence of moisture. The design of a structure should be
such that retention of moisture should be as low as possible.
• Differential metal corrosion can be reduced by the use of a single metal rather than
dissimilar metals. If their use is unavoidable, metals closely positioned in the galvanic series
should be used. An insulator should be placed between two dissimilar metals.
• The rate of corrosion depends on the relative sizes of anode and cathode. Smaller anode
and larger cathode should be avoided as far as possible.
2. Use of Corrosion Inhibitor
Inhibitors are inorganic or organic substances which when added to the environment are able
to reduce the rate of corrosion by retarding anodic and cathodic reactions.
There are three type of corrosion inhibitors.
a. Anodic inhibitor
Anodic inhibitors retard the corrosion process by preventing the anodic reaction. This is
achieved by the addition of anions such as chromate, tungstate, molybdate, etc., which
combine with metal ions formed at anodic region, forming sparingly soluble salts. These salts
are deposited on the anodic sites forming protective films, which act as barriers between
metal surface and corrosion medium, thereby prevent further anodic reaction and hence
corrosion.
b. Cathodic inhibitors: These act by inhibiting the cathodic reactions which involve the
liberation of hydrogen in acidic solutions and OH− ions in alkaline solution. These can be of
two types:
(i) Organic cathodic inhibitors such as amines, mercaptans, thioureas, sulphoxides, form a
protective layer on cathodic regions, prevent the evolution of hydrogen; thus decreasing the
rate of corrosion.
(ii) Inorganic cathodic inhibitors such as sulphates of Mg, Mn, Ni and Zn are used in neutral or
alkaline medium. These inhibitors react with OH− ions liberated at cathode, forming insoluble
hydroxides, which form protective film over cathode areas and prevent corrosion.
c. Vapour Phase Inhibitors
These are organic inhibitors which readily sublimes and form a protective layer on the surface
of metals. For Example: Dichlorohexylammonium nitrite is used for the protection of
machineries and sophisticated equipments.
3. Use of Protective Coatings
They are of three types
a. Metallic coatings: Metallic coatings are produced by coating a base metal with more active
metals (i.e., metals having low E0 values), which are anodic to the base metal. For example,
Al, Mg, Zn and Cd coatings on Fe. A characteristic feature of metallic coating is that, even if
the coating falls off at some places, the base metal does not undergo corrosion because the
base metal is cathodic in nature.
b. Inorganic coatings: They are non-metallic protective coatings. They are Surface Coating or
Chemical Dip Coating. For Example: Chromate coating.
It is obtained by the immersion of the metal in a bath having Sodium Dichromate and Dilute
Sulphuric Acid . At some critical pH, Basic Chromium Chromate (Cr2O3.CrO3.xH2O) gets
precipitated on the metal surface.
c. Organic coatings: These coatings are of materials that are applied to protect or beautify a
surface. These include paints, varnishes, stains, industrial maintenance coatings; and they can
be applied to stationary and/or mobile sources. When applied, the solvents in organic
coatings can evaporate into the atmosphere and contribute to volatile organic compounds
and airborne toxic emissions. Coating of metal surface with organic paints is the most widely
used anticorrosion coating.
4. Cathodic Protection
The corrosion of metal takes place at the anodic region whereas at the cathodic region, metal
is unaffected. The principle of cathodic protection involves the elimination of anodic sites and
conversion of the entire metal into cathodic site. This can be achieved by providing electrons
from an external source so that the specimen always remains cathode. This technique of
offering protection to a specimen against corrosion by providing electrons from an external
source is called cathodic protection.
It can be achieved by the following two methods:
i. Sacrificial anode method: In this method, the metal structure is converted into a cathode
by connecting into a more active metal, which acts as an auxiliary anode. The most commonly
used auxiliary anodes are Zn, Mg and Al. These metals being more active, act as anode and
undergo preferential corrosion, thus protecting the metal structure. Since the anodic metals
are sacrificed to protect the metal structure, this method is known as sacrificial anode
method. New auxiliary anodes replace exhausted sacrificial anodes as and when required. For
example,
(a) Magnesium block connected to underground pipelines.
(b) Magnesium bars are fixed to the sides of the ships.
ii. Impressed current method: Another method of providing cathodic protection is by
applying a direct current larger than the corrosion current. The protected metal is made
cathodic by connecting it to the negative terminal of a DC source. Positive terminal is
connected to an inert anode like Graphite. The metal structure being cathode, does not
undergo corrosion.
5. Anodic protection: The prevention of corrosion by impressed anodic current method is
called anodic protection. Few metals like Ti and alloys like steel, when made as anode exhibit
passivity by forming their oxide layers. In case of metals, such as Ti, Ni, Cr and their alloys,
application of suitable anodic current makes them passive and decreases their rate of
dissolution. The potential required to protect the metal can be obtained from potential–
current curve as shown in the figure below.
As seen in the above figure, as the potential is increased, initially the current also increases
(line AB), indicating the dissolution of metal. This trend continues until the current reaches a
critical value (icrit) and passivation due to the development of oxide layers sets in. This
potential is called passivating potential (EP). Above EP, the current flow decreases and reaches
a minimum value called the passivating current iP. It is the minimum protective current
density to maintain passivation. If the potential is further increased, the metal remains
unattacked till a particular potential is reached (line CD). This potential range in which anodic
protection can be achieved is called protection range.
The advantage of the method is that it requires a small current. However, the corrosion rate
cannot be reduced to zero as in cathodic protection. A drawback of the method is that it
cannot be applied to metals that do not passivate. This method of anodic protection is utilized
in the transportation of concentrated acids.
Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
There exist a number of techniques which may be used to monitor the effects of occurrence
of corrosion. These techniques basically fall into seven categories
1. CEION
2. Electrical Resistance Monitoring
2. Electrochemical Methods
3. Hydrogen Monitoring
4. Weight Loss Coupons
5. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques
6. Analytical Techniques
1. CEION
CEION is a new ratiometric metal loss measurement device with resolution that is at least 100
times better than existing ER based devices. It is ideal for monitoring oil/gas production and
processing systems. A technology that is just as capable of driving the real-time control loop
of an inhibitor pump as it is of operating without maintenance between planned shut downs.
CEION™ is also first choice technology for sub-sea, sub-surface applications where access and
reliability are key factors but fast response is still essential. CEION is also ideally suited to
measuring sand erosion in producing systems and a specific set of sensor designs has been
developed for this application.
2. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE (ER) MONITORING
The ER method of corrosion monitoring is one of the most widely used techniques and
consists of determining the change in resistance of a metal element as it corrodes in a process
environment. The action of corrosion on the element serves to decrease the cross sectional
area thereby increasing the electrical resistance. The element is usually in the form of a wire,
strip or tube, and if the corrosion is roughly uniform, a change in resistance is proportional to
an increment of corrosion. Estimates of the total corrosion over a period may me obtained
from successive readings. A simple formula converts to an average corrosion rate.
Electrical resistance probes are rugged and well adapted to any corrosive environment. The
ER technique is well proven in practice and is simple to use and interpret. ER monitoring
permits periodic or continuous monitoring to be established for one or a multiple number of
probes. Corrosion can thus be related to process variables, and the method is one of the
primary on-line monitoring tools. The major advantage is its ability to measure corrosion in
any environment, liquid, gas or particle streams.
3. ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
There are two electrochemical corrosion monitoring technique namely Linear Polarisation
Resistance Monitoring and Galvanic Monitoring, also known as Zero Resistance Ammetry.
The essential difference between ER and Electrochemical techniques is that ER measurements
provide information on total loss of material, whereas electrochemical techniques give rate
information.
3.1. LINEAR POLARISATION RESISTANCE (LPR) MONITORING
The LPR technique attempts to respond on a microscopic scale the microscopic corrosion cells
existing within the plant. LPR measures the corrosion current flowing between anodic and
cathodic half cells. Measurements are made by applying a small voltage (≈ 10 – 30mV) to a
corroding metal electrode and measuring the resulting current flow. The ratio of voltage to
current – the polarisation resistance – is inversely proportional to corrosion rate.
LPR monitoring provides an instantaneous measure of corrosion rate and may, for example
be used as a method for optimising corrosion inhibitor injection. The LPR technique is
restricted to aqueous solutions and best results are obtained in highly conductive media. To
permit more accurate measurements in solution of higher resistivity, systems have been
designed which utilise 3 electrode probes.
3.2 GALVANIC MONITORING (ZERO RESISTANCE AMMETRY)
The principle of the Galvanic technique relies on the fact that when two different metals are
immersed in an aqueous liquid they assume different electrode potentials. If these metals are
connected externally, a current will flow between them. This current is the result of the half
cell reactions taking place simultaneously causing the dissolution (corrosion) of the more
negative metal in the solution and the reduction of any available species such as oxygen at
the surface of the more positive electrode.
If oxygen is excluded from the system, the reduction process is suppressed and the galvanic
current falls to a very low level reflecting the reduced rate of corrosion.
Galvanic measurements are particularly applicable to the detection of the ingress of oxygen
into systems protected by de-aeration. Also, they provide a rapid, continuous method for
assessing corrosive conditions in aqueous flows.
4. HYDROGEN MONITORING
Hydrogen Monitoring is an important facet of corrosion monitoring, since the detection of
hydrogen provides an indication that corrosion is taking, or has taken place. In particular, in
situations where plant is exposed to wet sour gas (H2S), or acid conditions, the generation of
hydrogen is of primary concern. Under such conditions hydrogen may be directly absorbed
into the fabric of the plant and produce blistering, embitterment, stress corrosion cracking
and other hydrogen induced problems. Hydrogen monitoring probes exist which can be either
inserted into the plant in order to measure the presence of hydrogen, or conversely attached
to the exterior of the plant in a saddle mode capable of detecting the diffusion of hydrogen
through the plant.
5. WEIGHT LOSS COUPONS
Weight loss coupon monitoring is the oldest method for assessing the corrosivity of an
environment on a specific material and involves exposing a specimen (coupon) of the material
to the environment for a given duration, and measuring the resultant weight loss. The
coupons can be in the form of discs, rods, plates or of any convenient shape. Coupons are not
an instrumental method, and require extensive manual involvement in order to provide
information. Also, coupons only provide integrated corrosion loss data. However, the
advantages of coupons include.
Visual interpretation
Deposits can be observed and analysed
Weight loss can be readily determined
The degree of localisation of corrosion can be observed and
measured.
6. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) TECHNIQUES
A comprehensive range of NDT techniques exist which complement the ‘instrumentation’
techniques previously described. These include ultrasonics, radiography, thermography, eddy
current measurement and various others. Such techniques usually fall into the area of plant
inspection.
7. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
A number of analytical techniques are used to look at the process fluid chemistry. This usually
involves drawing off fluid samples for laboratory analysis. Areas of interest under this heading
are iron counts, chloride counts, oxygen, conductivity and pH measurements, flow
measurements and temperature.
8. SUMMARY
In practical corrosion monitoring programmes it is usual for several corrosion monitoring
techniques to be used, with some element of correlation being established. The preferred
methods are Coupon and CEION or ER monitoring, with emphasis on the latter, since CEION
& ER monitoring provides useful information on a day by day basis and measurements may
be made without the requirement for the probe to be retrieved from the system.
