Departmentt of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Soran University
Blocks
Lecturer:
Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani
Department of Civil Engineering
Sep 2025
Dr. Aryanfar H. Sherwani 1
Blocks
Why do we need to know about Blocks?
➢ Essential Building Material
➢ Helps ensure about Safety and Stability of a Building
➢ Material Selection
➢ Cost Efficiency
➢ Sustainability and Environmental Impact
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Blocks
Learning outcomes
➢ Understanding Concrete Blocks
➢ History and Development
➢ Concrete Block Composition
➢ Manufacturing Process
➢ Block Properties
➢ Thermal and Fire Resistance
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Blocks
Background
➢ A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of
walls. It is sometimes called a concrete masonry unit. A concrete block is one
of several precast concrete products used in construction. The term precast
refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened before they are
brought to the job site.
➢ Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their sides may
be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks are arranged at a time
and held together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length and
height of the wall.
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Blocks
Background
➢ The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in
the United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design
in 1900. Palmer's blocks, measuring 8 in (20.3 cm) by 10 in (25.4 cm) by 30
in (76.2 cm), required a small crane to lift them into position due to their
heavy weight. By 1905, an estimated 1,500 companies were manufacturing
concrete blocks in the United States.
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Blocks
Background
➢ The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of
powdered Portland cement, sand, and gravel as well as water. This produces a
light gray block with a fine surface texture and a high compressive strength.
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Blocks
Background
➢ Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three classes, based on their
density: lightweight units, medium-weight units, and normal-weight units,
with dry unit weights.
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Blocks
Background
➢ Lightweight Units
• Density: Less than 1680 kg/m³.
• Composition: Made from lightweight aggregates like pumice,
scoria, cinders, expanded clay, or shale.
• Properties: Higher thermal and fire resistance, but lower sound
insulation compared to heavier units.
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Blocks
Background
➢ Medium-weight Units
• Density: Between 1680 and 1920 kg/m³.
• Composition: Made from a mix of normal-weight and
lightweight aggregates.
• Properties: Balance of strength, insulation, and thermal
properties, used in a wide variety of applications.
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Blocks
Background
➢ Normal-weight Units
• Density: Greater than 1920 kg/m³
• Composition: Made from well-graded sand, gravel, and crushed
stone (heavier aggregates).
• Properties: Higher strength and sound resistance, but lower
thermal insulation and fire resistance.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Mixing
1- The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are transferred into storage
bins in the plant by a conveyor belt as they are needed. The Portland cement is
stored outside in large vertical silos to protect it from moisture.
2- As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel, and cement
are transferred by gravity or by mechanical means to a weigh batcher which
measures the proper amounts of each material.
3- The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they are blended
together for several minutes.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Mixing
4-After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of water is added to the
mixer. Admixture chemicals and colors may also be added at this time. The
concrete is then mixed for six to eight minutes.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Molding
5-After the concrete is fully mixed, it is poured into an inclined bucket conveyor,
which carries it up to a hopper. Then, the mixer starts working again to
prepare the next batch.
6-The concrete moves from the hopper into another hopper above the block
machine at a controlled speed. Inside the machine, the concrete is pushed down
into molds to form the blocks.
7- After the molds are filled, the top part of the machine presses down to
compact the concrete. Extra pressure from air or hydraulics and a quick vibration
are often used to make the blocks stronger and denser.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Molding
8-The compacted blocks are pushed down out of the molds onto a flat steel
pallet. In some operations the blocks then pass under a rotating brush which
removes loose material from the top of the blocks.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Molding
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Curing
9-The pallets of blocks are moved to an automatic loader, which stacks them into
a curing racks. Each rack can hold hundreds of blocks. Once full, the frame is
rolled on rails into a curing kiln
10- The kiln is a closed room that can hold many racks of blocks at once. The
most common kiln uses low-pressure steam. First, the blocks stay inside for 1–3
hours at room temperature to harden a little. Then steam is added slowly to
increase the temperature, but not more than 60°F (16°C) per hour.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Curing
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ FORM AND SIZE
o There are three basic forms of concrete block, solid, cellular and hollow, and
within each type a variety of products are available, thus providing flexibility
to block work construction both in style and function.
o Concrete masonry units are specified by their nominal dimensions.
o The nominal dimension is larger than the specified (actual) dimension
because it includes the thickness of the mortar joint, which is usually 10 mm.
o For example, a (200*200*400 mm) block has an actual width of 190 mm
height of 190 mm and length of 390 mm
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ FORM AND SIZE
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Properties
The properties of concrete blocks depend to a varying degree on the type and
proportions of the constituent materials, the manufacturing process, and the
mode and duration of curing employed, as well as on the form and size of the
block itself.
❖Density
▪ The density of concrete blocks is largely a function of the aggregate density,
size and grading, degree of compaction and the block form. The typical range
for dry density is 500-2100 kg/m3.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Properties
❖ Strength
▪ In addition to size, compressive strength is the basic requirement of concrete
blocks. Concrete masonry units can be classified as load bearing (ASTM C90)
and non–load bearing (ASTM C129). Load-bearing units must satisfy a higher
minimum compressive strength requirement than non–load-bearing units.
▪ The strength of concrete blocks mainly depends on the mix design and how
well the concrete is compacted. The type of aggregate and the curing method
also affect the strength, but less strongly. In general, for the same materials,
denser blocks will be stronger.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
➢ Properties
❖ Strength
▪ The compressive strength of individual concrete masonry units is determined
by capping the unit and applying load in the direction of the height of the unit
until failure (ASTM C140).
Strength Requirements of Load Bearing and
Non–Load-Bearing
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Water Absorption
▪ The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is controlled by
ASTM standards to reduce the effect of weathering and to limit the amount of
shrinkage due to moisture loss after construction (ASTM C90). The
absorption of concrete masonry units is determined by immersing the unit in
water for 24 hours (ASTM C140). The absorption and moisture content are
calculated as follows.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Water Absorption
Weight Classifications and Allowable Maximum Water Absorption of Concrete
Masonry Units
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Dimensional changes
▪ Concrete blocks will undergo some dimensional changes owing to variations
in the ambient moisture and temperature conditions. The magnitude of such
movements, to a varying degree, is largely influenced by the constituent
materials (mainly the aggregate), mix proportions and the process of block-
manufacturing adopted. Drying shrinkage is considered to be the most
important in normal applications.
▪ Drying shrinkage of concrete blocks can be greatly reduced if the blocks are
fully cured before use and protected from getting too wet at the site.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Durability
▪ Concrete blocks are usually durable enough for normal use. However, in harsh
conditions, such as chemical exposure or freezing weather, fair-faced blocks
with a strength greater than 7 MPa should be used.
▪ It should be noted that open-texture blocks are more susceptible to frost attack
than other blocks owing to the freedom with which water can move within the
block on freezing.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Efflorescence
▪ Efflorescence, which is common in clay bricks, is rarely a serious issue with
concrete blocks. When it does occur, it usually appears as sodium, potassium,
or calcium carbonates. These form when free hydroxides in the block migrate
to the surface and react with carbon dioxide in the air.
❖ Fire resistance
▪ In general, concrete blocks have good fire-resistance properties. However,
their actual fire-endurance is controlled by numerous factors. As a general
rule, most concrete blocks of 100 mm thickness can provide an adequate
resistance to fire for up to 2 hours if load-bearing or up to 4 hours if non-load-
bearing but specific information should be obtained from the manufacturer.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Thermal conductivity
❖ The thermal conductivity of a concrete block mainly depends on its density.
Blocks with higher thermal conductivity allow more heat to escape through
building walls.
❖ heavier/denser blocks let
more heat pass through.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
❖ Thermal conductivity
▪ In general, autoclaved aerated concrete and other lightweight blocks have
low thermal conductivity. Likewise, cellular and hollow blocks, being less
dense, conduct less heat than solid blocks.
▪ The thermal conductivity of a concrete block is further affected by its
moisture content, increasing as the moisture content increases.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Questions:
If you are building a structure in an area prone to frost, which type
of concrete block would you choose, and why? Consider the
properties of durability and frost resistance in your answer.
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THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Assignment:
Visit a local construction site or manufacturing plant and observe
the production process of concrete blocks. Prepare a report
detailing each step and the quality control measures in place.
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