ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್.

ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ

BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

MODULE 2- ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION SYSTEMS

Batteries: Introduction, Classification of batteries: primary, secondary and reserve batteries
with examples.
Secondary batteries: Construction, working, and applications of lithium-ion batteries.
Introduction to sodium-ion batteries as next-generation alternatives; comparison of sodium-ion
and lithium-ion batteries in terms of performance and applications, Numerical problems on
battery efficiency, and specific capacity.

Introduction
• Energy Systems are a set of methods and technologies used to store energy.

• The stored energy can be utilized later to perform useful operations.

• For instance, many renewable energy sources such as wind, solar energy and tides are
intermittent (Irregular).

• Therefore, energy storage systems are crucial so that energy can be used when needed.

• Different technologies are available to store various forms of energy.

• The choice of energy storage technology depends on its application, economics,

integration within the system

• The choice of energy storage technology depends on its application, economics,

integration within the system

• Batteries are most important energy storage devices.

Batteries: Introduction
A battery is a portable energy source with four basic components, an anode (the negative part),
a cathode (the positive part), an electrolyte & separator. The term battery originally implied a
group of cells in a series or parallel arrangement, but now it is either a single cell or group of
cells. Size of the batteries ranges from cm3 to dm3. The batteries are of great importance based
on the ability of some electrochemical systems to store electrical energy supplied by the
external source. Such batteries may be used for emergency power supplies, for driving electric
vehicles, etc.
Definition: Battery is an electrochemical cell; it consists of one or more galvanic cells
connected in series or parallel connection. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy
during discharging and electrical energy into chemical energy during charging.

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Classification of Batteries
Batteries are classified into three types viz.,
• Primary batteries (non-rechargeable),
• Secondary batteries (rechargeable) and
• Reserve batteries
Primary batteries
The batteries which produce electrical energy at the expense of chemical energy of active
materials and produce energy only as long as active materials are present are called as
primary batteries. These are non-rechargeable batteries and are to be discarded after the
use. The cell reactions is said to be irreversible.
Example: Dry cell. Zn-air battery, Zn-carbon battery.
Secondary batteries
The rechargeable batteries that produce electrical energy at the expense of chemical energy
of active materials are called secondary batteries. These active materials can restore at
respective electrodes on recharge and prepare for discharge once again. The cell reactions
is said to be reversible.
Example: Lead acid battery, Ni-Cd battery, Ni-MH battery, Li-ion battery
Reserve batteries
The high energy batteries in which active materials are isolated from battery due to their
high reactivity and are brought into contact whenever high energy is required for
application are called reserve batteries.
Example: Magnesium- water activated batteries, zinc-silver oxide batteries, etc.

Lithium Based Batteries

Lithium is the lightest and highly reactive metal. The electrochemical properties of lithium are
excellent. The outstanding electrochemical properties of lithium make it a key component in
high-energy-density batteries for applications like electric vehicles and portable devices.
Composition of the Lithium-ion battery (LIB)
Reactive species at anode : Li/Graphite
Reactive species at cathode : LiCoO2
Electrolyte : Lithium salt
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 3.6 V
Construction
1. In lithium- ion battery (Li- ion battery or LIB), the lithium ions (electrons) move from
the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) during discharge and
back when charging.
2. Anode is made of carbon material (graphite) with a high energy density and large doping

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

capacity of lithium ion. Cathodes are metal oxide material containing lithium with
capable of dedoping lithium ion during charging and undergo lithium doping during
discharging.
3. Electrolyte is made of lithium salts (LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4) dissolved in organic solvents
such as ethylene carbonate/ methylene carbonate/ ether . Lithium ions migrate between
the two electrodes through an electrolyte.
4. Separator used is polypropylene.
5. The output voltage of this battery is 3.6V.

Working
• During charging lithium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and move
towards anodic side (negative electrode)
• 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 → 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒−
• 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒− + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
• 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿 𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
• During discharging lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
• 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒− + 6𝐶
• 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒− → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2
• 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿 𝑖(1−𝑥)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 ↔ 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶
Applications
• The Li- ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers,
to operate laptop computers, in aerospace applications.
Advantages of Li-ion battery (Optional)
• High energy density: Stores more energy per unit area
• Low Self-discharge: 1 or 2% per month.
• Low maintenance
• Cell voltage: 3.6 volts (Highest in the market)
• Load characteristics: They provide a reasonably constant 3.6 volts per cell
• Light weight: These batteries are light weight when compare to other batteries.
• Charging is fast: Charging of these batteries are fast when compare to other types of
battery.
• Temperature independent: These batteries are independent on the temperature.

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Introduction to sodium-ion batteries as next-generation alternatives

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are emerging as a next-generation alternative to lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs). While LIBs are widely used in phones, electric vehicles, and energy storage
systems, lithium is expensive and limited in supply. Sodium, on the other hand, is cheap,
abundant, and evenly distributed around the world.

SIBs work in a similar way to LIBs by moving ions between the anode and cathode during
charging and discharging. Because of their low cost and good performance, sodium-ion
batteries are considered promising for large-scale applications such as renewable energy
storage and low-cost electric vehicles.

Sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries offer several potential advantages over lithium-ion (Li-ion)
batteries.

Advantages of Na–ion batteries over Li-ion battery

1. Abundance and Cost of Raw Materials: Sodium is much more abundant than lithium, as
it can be easily extracted from sources like sea salt. This abundance reduces costs and makes
Na-ion batteries more affordable in the long run. Also, Na-ion batteries do not rely on expensive
metals like cobalt and nickel, which are commonly used in Li-ion batteries.

2. Environmental Sustainability: Sodium can be sourced with a smaller environmental

impact compared to lithium, which often requires resource-intensive extraction processes.
Sodium compounds tend to be more environmentally friendly.

3. Thermal Stability and Safety: Na-ion batteries generally have a lower risk of thermal
runaway compared to Li-ion batteries.

4. Lower Operating Temperature Sensitivity: These batteries perform more stably across a
range of temperatures, enhancing their potential for use in harsh environments.

5. Performance for Stationary Storage: Na-ion batteries are particularly suited for large-
scale, stationary applications like grid energy storage, where high energy density is less critical
than in portable electronics.

6. Compatibility with Existing Battery Manufacturing: The current Li-ion battery

manufacturing process can be adapted to produce Na-ion batteries with only minor
modifications, which can lead to lower capital investment for production scaling.

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Comparison of Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries

Feature Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) Sodium-Ion Battery (SIB)

Element used Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na)

Abundance Limited and unevenly distributed Highly abundant and widely

available (e.g., seawater)

Cost Higher (due to lithium and Lower (sodium and iron are
cobalt) cheaper)

Energy Density Very high, ideal for compact Moderate, suitable for larger
devices (150-250 Wh/kg) setups (90-160 Wh/kg)

Operating Voltage Higher (≈3.6-3.7 V) Slightly lower (≈2.5-3.2 V)

Cycle Life 1,000-3,000 cycles depending on 500-2,000 cycles; improving

chemistry. with new materials.

Thermal Stability & Good, but risk of overheating. Generally safer and more stable.
Safety
Performs well between 0-45°C.

Environmental Mining of Li, Co, and Ni causes Uses abundant and eco-friendly
Impact more ecological damage materials (Na, Fe, Mn).

Power Density High; can deliver large current Comparable, but slightly lower
quickly. at high rates.

Efficiency 90-95% energy efficiency. 85-90% energy efficiency.

Applications Portable electronics, EVs, Grid energy storage, renewable

aerospace systems, low-cost EVs

Summary
LIBs → high energy and performance → best for portable and high-end applications.
SIBs → cheaper and sustainable → best for large-scale, stationary, and cost-sensitive
applications.

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Numerical problems on battery efficiency, and specific capacity

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry

 ಬಿ.ಎಂ.ಎಸ್. ತಂತ್ರಿ ಕ ಮತ್ತು ವ್ಯ ವ್ಸ್ಥಾ ಪನಾ ಮಹಾವಿದ್ಯಯ ಲಯ
BMS Institute of Technology and Management
Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560119

Dr. A. Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy Assistant Professor of Chemistry