Data Communications

• Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
[Link] ‐ deliver data to the correct destination.
[Link] ‐ deliver the data accurately.
[Link] ‐ deliver data in a timely manner without significant delay.
[Link] ‐ Jitter refers to the variation (uneven) in the packet arrival time.

9
 Components of Data Communication
• Five Components Set of rules that govern
Protocol data communications.

Path by which
Device that sends the Medium a message travels Receiver
Device that receives the
data message Sender data message

Information (data) to be
Message communicated.

10
Data Flows
Data Flows
• Simplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one‐
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive.

• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction.
2
Data Flows
Data Flows
• Half‐Duplex
• In half‐duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa

• In a half‐duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken

over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
3
Data Flows
Data Flows
• Full‐Duplex
• In full‐duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously

• In full‐duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two
ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
4
Computer Networks
Computer Network
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication. Device can be
• host
• connecting devices
• These devices in a network are connected using wired or wireless
transmission media
• A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the
purpose of sharing resources.

5
Computer Networks
Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The
most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of
a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
6
Computer Networks
• Network Criteria
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
• Throughput ‐ It is the rate at which data is successfully delivered
over a network connection.

• Delay – Delay (Latency) is the time it takes for a data packet to

travel from its source to its destination.

7
Computer Networks
Network Criteria
• Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by
the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure.
• Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

8
Computer Networks
Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
• Point‐to‐Point
• A point‐to‐point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point‐to‐point connections use an
actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other
options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible

9
Computer Networks
Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
• A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link

• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either

spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it
is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
10
Computer Networks
Physical Structures
• Network Topology
• Network topology refers to the layout and interconnection of devices
within a network. It describes how network components like
computers, servers, and other devices are connected and
communicate with each other.
• There are four basic topologies possible:
• Mesh
• Star
• Bus
• Ring
11
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point‐to‐point link
to every other device. The number of physical links in a fully
connected mesh network with n nodes are n(n‐1)/2
• Advantages:
• eliminating the traffic problems, topology is robust, easy fault identification and
fault Isolation
• Disadvantage:
• Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required, Complex to set up
and maintain.
2
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Star topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point‐to‐point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub or switch.
• Advantages:
• Less expensive, only one link and one I/O port to connect, less cabling, robust
• Disadvantage:
• Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub or switch.

3
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Bus Topology
• In a bus network, all devices share the same communication channel. Data
travels along the cable, and each device checks if the data is intended for it.
If so, it accepts the data; otherwise, it ignores it. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network.
• Advantages:
• Simple to set up and cost‐effective, well‐suited for small networks with few devices.
• Disadvantage:
• Signal gets weaker and weaker as it travels farther, limited scalability; adding more
devices can degrade performance, a single cable break can disrupt the entire network.
4
Computer Networks
Network Topology
• Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point‐to‐point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. Data circulates around the
ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along
• Advantages:
• Even data distribution, as each device has an equal opportunity to transmit. easy to
install and reconfigure.
• Disadvantage:
• Unidirectional traffic, break in the ring can disable the network, adding or removing
devices can be complex.
5
Computer Networks
• Types of Networks

6
Computer Networks
Network Types
• PAN : A Personal Area Network links devices
within an individual's workspace, typically
covering a range of a few meters. PANs often
use wireless technologies like Bluetooth or USB
connections, enabling seamless communication
between personal devices such as
smartphones, laptops, and wearable gadgets.

7
Computer Networks
Network Types
• LAN: The Local Area Network is designed to connect multiple
network devices and systems within a limited geographical distance.
It offers high speed and security for local resource sharing.

8
Computer Networks
Network Types
• MAN: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
covers a city or a large campus, serving as an
intermediary between Local Area Networks
(LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs).
MANs offer high‐speed connectivity within a
specific geographic region, supporting
organisations with multiple offices or
campuses nearby.

9
Computer Networks
Network Types
• WAN: Wide Area Network spans large geographical areas, potentially
connecting multiple LANs across cities, countries, or even
continents. The internet is a prime example of a WAN.

10
Computer Networks
Network Types
• WAN
• Point‐to‐Point WAN: A point‐to‐point WAN is a network that connects two
communicating devices through a transmission media.

• Switched WAN: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

11
Computer Networks
Network Type
• Internetwork: When two or more networks are connected, they make an
internetwork, or internet.

12
Computer Networks
• Network Classification (based on distance)

13
Computer Networks
Specific Purpose Network Types
• VPN:A Virtual Private Network (VPN) creates a secure, encrypted
network over the internet, enabling secure remote access to a private
network. VPNs are essential for remote work, allowing users to
connect to their organization’s network securely from any location
with internet access.

• SAN: A Storage Area Network (SAN) is dedicated to efficient data

storage and retrieval. It separates storage resources from the main
network, providing a centralized and scalable solution for managing
and accessing large volumes of data.
14
Computer Networks
Switching
• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called
switches.
• Communication between distant stations/end‐devices is typically
done over a network of switching nodes.
• In a switched communications network, data entering the network
from a source station are routed to the destination by being switched
from node to node.
• Switching can occur at Physical Layer, Data‐Link Layer, Network Layer,
Application Layer.

2
Computer Networks
Switching
• Switching nodes do not concern with content of data. The purpose is to
provide a switching facility that will communicate/transmit the data from
source to destination via intermediate node(s).

3
Computer Networks
• Switching Modes
• Store‐and‐Forward Switching
• Store‐and‐Forward is a robust switching technique where the switch receives
the entire frame before any further action is taken. Only error free frames are
forwarded to the next node. It can lead to high latency.
• Cut‐Through Switching
• This technique allows the switch to forward packets as soon as the
destination address is identified, which occurs after reading the first six bytes
of the frame. The switch does not wait for the entire frame to be received,
which speeds up the process. It significantly reducing latency.

4
Computer Networks
• Switching Modes
• Fragment‐Free Switching
• Fragment‐free switching is a hybrid approach that balances speed and error
checking. This technique requires the switch to read at least 64 bytes of the
incoming frame before forwarding it, allowing for the detection of collisions
that typically occur in the initial bytes.
• By ensuring the switch has enough information to check for errors, Fragment‐
Free switching merges the speed of Cut‐Through with the reliability of Store‐
and‐Forward.

5
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• There are three types of network switching:

Circuit Packet Message

Switching Switching Switching

Datagram Packet Virtual‐circuit

Switching Switching
6
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is
established between the source and destination beforehand. This
connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the
data is transferred completely.
• Circuit Establishment: A connection
request is sent, and an acknowledgment is
received before data transmission begins.
• Data Transfer: Data is transmitted along
the established path.
• Circuit Disconnect: Once communication is
complete, the dedicated path is
terminated. 7
Computer Networks
• Circuit Switching:
• Efficiency: Circuit‐switched networks are not as efficient as the other
two types of networks because resources are allocated during the
entire duration of the connection.
• Delay: The delay in this type of network is minimal.

8
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching: Packet switching breaks messages into smaller
packets which are transmitted independently across the network.
Each packet is identified by its sequence number and contains source
and destination IP addresses.
• There is no resource reservation, resources are allocated on demand.
• When a switch receives a packet, no matter what the source or
destination is, the packet must wait if there are other packets being
processed. This may create delay.
• Two types of packet‐switched networks: datagram networks and
virtual‐circuit networks.
9
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Datagram Packet Switching: Treats packets as independent
entities with no predetermined path. Routing decisions are made
at each intermediate node, leading to potential congestion but
also flexibility. It is also referred as connectionless switching.
• Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
• Packets may reach at destination out of order with different delays
and also be lost or dropped because of a lack of resources.
• There are no setup or teardown phases.
10
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Datagram Packet Switching:

4 3 2 1 3 4 2 1

11
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Datagram Packet Switching:
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a datagram network is better than
that of a circuit‐switched network.
• Delay: There may be greater delay in a datagram network than
in a virtual‐circuit network. Each packet may experience a wait
at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not all
packets in a message necessarily travel through the same
switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
12
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Virtual Circuit Switching: Establishes a fixed path before data
transmission. This connection‐oriented approach ensures that all
packets follow the same route. It is connection‐oriented
switching.

4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1

13
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Virtual Circuit Switching:
• There are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase.
• Resources can be allocated during the setup phase. All packets
follow the same path established during the connection.
• Two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual‐
circuit identifier)

14
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Packet Switching types:
• Virtual Circuit Switching:
• Efficiency: Resource reservation in a virtual‐circuit network can be
made during the setup or can be on demand during the data‐
transfer phase. In the first case, the delay for each packet is the
same.
• Delay: There is a one‐time delay for setup and a one‐time delay for
teardown.

15
Computer Networks
Switching Types
• Message Switching:
• It uses store and forward mechanism i.e. complete messages are routed
through intermediate nodes where they are stored and forwarded. There is
no need for a dedicated path between sender and receiver. Messages are
appended with a destination address and dynamically routed based on
available information.

16
Computer Networks
• Network Standards
• Network standards are a set of rules, procedures, and specifications that
enable devices from different manufacturers to communicate with each
other over a network.
• Key aspects of network standards:
• Interoperability: Network standards ensure that devices and systems from
different vendors can work together without compatibility issues.
• Compatibility: They guarantee that network components, such as
hardware and software, can be integrated and function correctly within a
network.
• Layering: Network standards are often organized into layers, such as the
OSI model, where each layer has its own set of standards and protocols.
2
Computer Networks
• Various Network Standards:
• IEEE 802 standards: A family of standards developed by the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), covering various aspects
of LANs, MANs, and wireless networks.
• TCP/IP: A suite of communication protocols that forms the foundation
of the internet, defining how data is routed and transmitted across
networks.
• HTTP, HTML, FTP: Application‐layer protocols that enable web
browsing, file transfer, and other internet services.

3
Computer Networks
Standards Organizations
• International Standards Organization (ISO): The International Organization for
Standardization sets standards for various industries, including networking.
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU): The International
Telecommunication Union sets standards for telecommunications, including
networking.
• Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE): The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers develops and publishes a wide range of networking
standards.
• Internet Research Task Force (IETF): The Internet Engineering Task Force develops
and promotes standards for the internet.
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB): The main purposes of the IAB are to oversee
the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to serve in a
technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community.
4
Internet Standards
Internet Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful
to and adhered to by those who work with the Internet. It is a
formalized regulation that must be followed.

Internet Draft RFC Internet Standard

(Edited, Number, Made available) 5
Internet Standards
• RFCs are classified into five requirement levels: required,
recommended, elective, limited use, and not recommended.

RFCs can be found at [Link] 6

Internet Standards
Requirement Levels
• Required. An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all Internet
systems to achieve minimum conformance. For example, IP and ICMP are
required protocols.
• Recommended. An RFC labeled recommended is not required for minimum
conformance; it is recommended because of its usefulness. For example, FTP and
TELNET are recommended protocols.
• Elective. An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended. However,
a system can use it for its own benefit.
• Limited Use. An RFC labeled limited use should be used only in limited situations.
Most of the experimental RFCs fall under this category.
• Not Recommended. An RFC labeled not recommended is inappropriate for
general use. Normally a historic (deprecated) RFC may fall under this category.
7
Internet Standards
Internet Administration
• These are the groups that coordinate Internet issues and guides the
growth and development of the Internet.

Internet Society (ISOC)

Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG)

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
8
Internet Standards
Internet Administration
• ISOC: This is an international, nonprofit organization formed in 1992 to provide
support for the Internet standards process. ISOC also promotes research and
other scholarly activities relating to the Internet.
• IAB: It is the technical advisor to the ISOC. The main purposes of the IAB are to
oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and to serve in
a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community.
• IETF: It is a forum of working groups managed by the Internet Engineering
Steering Group (IESG). IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems
and proposing solutions to these problems. The areas include applications,
protocols, routing, network management next generation (IPng), and security.
• IRTF: This is a forum of working groups managed by the Internet Research
Steering Group (IRSG). IRTF focuses on long‐term research topics related to
Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and technology. 9
Concept of Protocol Layering
Protocol Layering
• In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules
that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need
to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a
stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher
layers while shielding those layers from the details of how the offered
services are actually implemented.

10
Concept of Protocol Layering
Protocol Layering
• A set of layers and protocols is
called a network architecture.
• A list of the protocols used by a
certain system, one protocol per
layer, is called a protocol stack.

11
Concept of Protocol Layering
• Example information flow

12
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is the
conceptual network communication framework proposed in 1980
that standardizes how computer systems communicate over a
network.
• It divides the process into seven layers that interacts with the layer
directly above and below it, encapsulating and transmitting data in a
structured manner. Each with specific functions, to facilitate
communication between diverse hardware and software.
• This model promotes interoperability and simplifies troubleshooting
by breaking down complex network processes into manageable parts.2
Reference Models
Reference Models

3
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Application Layer: The Application Layer serves as the interface between the
end‐user applications and the underlying network services. This layer
provides protocols and services that are directly utilized by end‐user
applications to communicate across the network. Widely used application
protocols are HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS.

4
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Presentation Layer: The Presentation Layer, also known as the syntax layer, is
responsible for translating data between the application layer and the
network format. It ensures that data sent from the application layer of one
system is readable by the application layer of another system.
• This layer handles data formatting, encryption, and compression, facilitating
interoperability between different systems.

5
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Session Layer: The Session Layer manages and controls the connections
between computers. It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections,
ensuring that data exchanges occur efficiently and in an organized manner.
The layer is responsible for session checkpointing and recovery, which allows
sessions to resume after interruptions.

6
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Transport Layer: The Transport Layer provides end‐to‐end communication
services for applications. It ensures complete data transfer, error recovery,
and flow control between hosts. This layer segments and reassembles data
for efficient transmission and provides reliability with error detection and
correction mechanisms.
• Protocols at this layer include TCP and UDP.

7
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Network Layer: The Network Layer is responsible for data routing,
forwarding, and addressing. It determines the best physical path for data to
reach its destination based on network conditions, the priority of service, and
other factors. This layer manages logical addressing through IP addresses and
handles packet forwarding.
• Key protocols at this layer include the Internet Protocol (IP), Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

8
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is responsible for node‐to‐node data
transfer and error detection and correction. It ensures that data is transmitted
to the correct device on a local network segment. This layer manages MAC
(Media Access Control) addresses and is divided into two sublayers: Logical
Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).
• Protocols and technologies at this layer include Ethernet, Point‐to‐Point
Protocol (PPP)

9
Reference Models
OSI Reference Model
• Physical Layer: The Physical Layer is responsible for the physical connection
between devices. It defines the hardware elements involved in the network,
including cables, switches, and other physical components. This layer also
specifies the electrical, optical, and radio characteristics of the network.
• Functions of the Physical Layer include the modulation, bit synchronization,
and transmission of raw binary data over the physical medium.

10
Communication in the OSI Model
• When a user in sends an email to a colleague, the
process starts at the Application Layer. The user’s email • The Presentation Layer decrypts and
client that uses SMTP to handle the email message. formats the email, and the Application
• The email is then passed to the Presentation Layer, Layer delivers the email to the client,
where it is formatted and encrypted to ensure proper
transmission. where it appears in their inbox.
• Next, the email moves to the Session Layer, where a
session is established between the sender’s email • The Session Layer maintains the session
server and the receiver’s email server. This layer
manages the session, keeping the connection open until the email is fully received.
long enough to send the email.
• The email data then reaches the Transport Layer, • The Network Layer ensures the packets
where it is divided into smaller packets. TCP ensures
these packets are sent reliably and in the correct order. have arrived correctly, and the Transport
• At the Network Layer, each packet is assigned source Layer reorders them if necessary.
and destination IP addresses, allowing it to be routed
through multiple networks, including routers and
switches, to reach the recipient. • The Physical Layer converts the signals
• The Data Link Layer then uses MAC addresses to back into data packets, which are
handle the packets’ journey across local networks and reassembled at the Data Link Layer.
correcting any errors that occur.
• Finally, the Physical Layer converts the data into
electrical signals, which are transmitted over fiber‐
optic cables under the Atlantic Ocean.

11
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers)
used in the Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality. The term hierarchical means that each
upper level protocol is supported by the services provided by one or more
lower level protocols.
• TCP/IP is a five‐layer model.

2
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model

APPLICATION LAYER HTTP, FTP, ICMP, POP3

TRANSPORT LAYER TCP UDP
NETWORK LAYER IP ICMP ARP
DATA LINK LAYER Ethernet
PHYSICAL LAYER Ethernet

3
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
Message
Segment
Datagram
Frames
Bits

4
5
Transport Layer

6
7
Network Layer

8
9
10
11
Reference Models
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Application Layer
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two
programs running at this layer). Process‐to‐process communication is the duty
of the application layer. Some of the protocols used in this layer are:
• HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol is used for accessing the information
available on the internet.
• SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol, assigned the task of handling e‐mail‐
related steps and issues.
• FTP: This is the standard protocol that oversees the transfer of files over the
network channel.
2
Reference Models
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end‐to‐end. The transport
layer at the source host gets the message from the application layer,
encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a segment or a user
datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through the logical (imaginary)
connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.
• The main protocol,
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
3
Reference Models
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Transport Layer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• connection‐oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection between
transport layers at two hosts before transferring data.
• provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of the source host with the
receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination),
• provides error control (to guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination without
error and resending the corrupted ones),
• provides congestion control to reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the
network.
4
Reference Models
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Transport Layer
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical
connection.
• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control

5
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source
computer and the destination computer. The communication at the network layer is
host‐to‐host. However, since there can be several routers from the source to the
destination, the routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for
each packet.
• The network layer also includes unicast (one‐to‐one) and multicast (one‐to‐many)
routing protocols. A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is the
responsibility of IP), but it creates forwarding tables for routers to help them in the
routing process.
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP)

6
Reference Models
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Network Layer
• Internet Protocol
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control,
and no congestion control services. It defines the format of the packet,
called a datagram at the network layer.
• The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its
delivery and routing tasks.

7
Reference Models
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Network Layer
• Internet Protocol (Auxiliary Protocols)
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some
problems when routing a packet.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that
helps IP in multitasking.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the network‐
layer address for a host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find the
link‐layer address of a host or a router when its network‐layer address is
given.

8
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Data‐link Layer
• The data‐link layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across
the link. The link can be a wired LAN with a link‐layer switch, a wireless LAN, a
wired WAN, or a wireless WAN.
• The data‐link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a
frame.

9
Reference Models
Reference Models
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
• Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across
the link.
• The bits received in a frame from the data‐link layer are transformed and sent
through the transmission media

10
Reference Models
• Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• encapsulation in the source host, decapsulation in the destination host, and
encapsulation and decapsulation in the router.

11
Reference Models
Encapsulation at the Source Host
• At the source, we have only encapsulation.
• At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message.
A message normally does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does, we
refer to the whole as the message. The message is passed to the transport
layer.
• The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the
transport layer should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the
payload, which contains the identifiers of the source and destination
application programs that want to communicate plus some more information
that is needed for the end‐to‐end delivery of the message, such as
information needed for flow, error control, or congestion control. The result is
the transport‐layer packet, which is called the segment (in TCP) and the user
datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes the packet to the network
layer.

12
Reference Models
Encapsulation at the Source Host
• The network layer takes the transport‐layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the
source and destination hosts and some more information used for error
checking of the header, fragmentation information, and so on. The result is
the network‐layer packet, called a datagram. The network layer then passes
the packet to the data‐link layer.
• The data‐link layer takes the network‐layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header, which contains the link‐layer addresses of the host or
the next hop (the router). The result is the link‐layer packet, which is called a
frame. The frame is passed to the physical layer for transmission.

13
Reference Models
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the
router is connected to two or more links.
• After the set of bits are delivered to the data‐link layer, this layer
decapsulates the datagram from the frame and passes it to the network
layer.
• The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in
the datagram header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop
to which the datagram is to be delivered. The contents of the datagram
should not be changed by the network layer in the router unless there is a
need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed through the
next link. The datagram is then passed to the data‐link layer of the next
link.
• The data‐link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame
and passes it to the physical layer for transmission. 14
Reference Models
• Decapsulation at the Destination Host
• At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received,
removes the payload, and delivers the payload to the next‐higher layer
protocol until the message reaches the application layer. It is necessary to say
that decapsulation in the host involves error checking.

15
Reference Models
• Addressing
• Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source
address and destination address.
• Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite

2
Reference Models
• At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that
provides services, such as [Link], or the e‐mail address, such as
somebody@[Link].
• At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define
the application‐layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers
are local addresses that distinguish between several programs running at
the same time.
• At the network‐layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as
the scope. A network‐layer address uniquely defines the connection of a
device to the Internet.
• The link‐layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally
defined addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a
network (LAN or WAN).

3
Transmission Impairments
• In communication system, signals travel through transmission media,
which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes
signal impairment.
• Three causes of impairment are

4
Transmission Impairments
• Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of
the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if
not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

5
Transmission Impairments
• Attenuation

• Decibel (dB) is to show that a signal has lost or gained strength. It

measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points. The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and
positive if a signal is amplified.

• P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively 6

Transmission Impairments
• Example
• Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its
power is reduced to one‐half i.e. P2=0.5P1

• A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10

times. This means that P2 = 10P1.

7
Transmission Impairments
• Decibel measurements between set of points

8
Transmission Impairments
• Distortion
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion
can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each
signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is
not exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they had
at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the
same.

9
Transmission Impairments
• Distortion

10
Transmission Impairments
• Noise
• Noise is an unwanted signal comes in the transmission medium and is another
cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra
signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices
act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving
antenna.
• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
• Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes
from power lines, lightning, and so on.
11
Transmission Impairments
• Noise

• Signal‐to‐Noise Ratio (SNR)

• It is defined as

• A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means
the signal is more corrupted by noise.

12
Transmission Impairments
• Measuring SNR and SNRdB
• Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in
decibel units, SNRdB, defined as

• Example:
• The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW;
what are the values of SNR and SNRdB?

13
Data Rate Limits
• Data rate in data communications is how fast we can send data, in
bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
• The bandwidth available
• The level of the signals we use
• The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

• Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:

• Nyquist formula ‐ noiseless channel
• Shannon formula ‐ noisy channel
14
Data Rate Limits
• Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 X B X log2L
• Where,
• B is the bandwidth of the channel,
• L is the number of signal levels used to represent data,
• BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
• Increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
15
Data Rate Limits
• For a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a
signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate is

• Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four

signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate is

16
Data Rate Limits
• Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
• In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.
The Shannon capacity was introduced to determine the theoretical highest
data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = B X log2(1+SNR)
• Where,
• B is the bandwidth of the channel,
• SNR is the signal‐to‐noise ratio,
• Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
• We cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the channel.
• The formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the method of
transmission.
17
Data Rate Limits
• Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal‐
to‐noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong
that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

C = B X log2(1+SNR) = B X log2(1+0) = B X log2(1) = B X 0 = 0

• This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the
bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.

18
Data Rate Limits
• We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
(300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communications. The signal‐to‐
noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated
as

• This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase
the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal‐to‐noise ratio.
19
Data Rate Limits
• Using Both Limits
• In practice, we need to use both methods to find the limits and signal
levels.
• We have a channel with a 1‐MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is
63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
• First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

• The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better
performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we
use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.

• The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
20
Transmission Media
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can
carry information from a source to a destination.
• Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are
directly controlled by the physical layer.
• Classification of transmission media

2
Transmission Media
• Guided media
• These media provide a physical channel for data transmission from
one device to another, guiding the signals along a specific path.
Examples: Twisted‐pair cable, Coaxial cable, and fiber‐optic cable.
• A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained
by the physical limits of the medium.
• Twisted‐pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that
accept and transport signals in the form of electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form
of light.
3
Transmission Media
• Twisted‐Pair Cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.

• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other
is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference
between the two.

4
Transmission Media
Types of Twisted pair cables
• Unshielded twisted‐pair (UTP)
• Does not have a shielding layer, making it more vulnerable to external interference.
• UTP is commonly used in telephone and Ethernet networks.
• Advantages of UTP
• Low cost.
• Provides High Speed.
• Easy to install.
• Disadvantages of UTP
• It is susceptible to external interference.
• Due to attenuation, it is limited to short‐distance transmission.
• Low performance as compared to STP.
5
Transmission Media
Types of Twisted pair cables
• Shielded twisted‐pair (STP)
• They have a shielding layer (usually foil or braided copper) that helps protect the
cables from external interference.
• These are used in environments where higher data rates and more secure
transmission are needed.
• Advantages of STP
• High speed than UTP.
• Better performance.
• No crosstalk(or interference).
• Disadvantages of STP
• Difficult to install and manufacture.
• Expensive.
6
Transmission Media
• Categories of Twisted Pair Cables
Category Bandwidth Data Rate Distance Usage
Cat1 750 kHz 1 Mbps Telephone and modem lines
Cat2 1 MHz Up to 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone
Cat3 16 MHz Up to 10 Mbps 100 m (328 ft.) 10BaseT Ethernet
Cat4 20 MHz Up to 16 Mbps 100 m (328 ft.) Token Ring
Cat5 100 MHz Up to 100 Mbps 100 m (328 ft.) 100BaseT Ethernet
Cat5e 100 MHz Up to 1 Gbps 100 m (328 ft.) 100BaseT Ethernet, residential homes
Cat6 250 MHz Up to 1 Gbps 100 m (328 ft.) Gigabit Ethernet, commercial buildings
10Gb at 37 m (121 ft.)
Cat6a 500 MHz Up to 10 Gbps 100 m (328 ft.) Gigabit Ethernet in Data Centres and
(Augmented) commercial buildings
Cat7 600 MHz Up to 10 Gbps 100 m (328 ft.) 10 Gbps Core Infrastructure
Cat7a 1000 MHz Up to 10 Gbps 100 m (328 ft.) 10 Gbps Core Infrastructure
(Augmented) 40Gb at 50 m (164 ft.)
Cat8 2000 MHZ Up to 25 Gbps (Cat8.1) 30 m (98 ft.) 25 Gbps/40 Gbps Core Infrastructure 7
Up to 40 Gbps (Cat8.2)
Transmission Media
• Coaxial Cable (or coax)
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. Coaxial cables are used primarily in television
networks and broadband internet connections.
• Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually
copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and
as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
8
Transmission Media
Coaxial Cable Standards
• Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG)
ratings

• Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications,

including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and
type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size
and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is
adapted for a specialized function
9
Transmission Media
• Coaxial Cable Connectors
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The
most common type of connector is the Bayonet Neill‐Concelman
(BNC) connector.
• Three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC
T connector, and the BNC terminator.

10
Transmission Media
• Coaxial Cable
• Advantages of Coaxial Cable
• Easy to install and expand the range.
• High Bandwidth.
• Less expensive.
• Less noise
• Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
• Single cable failure can disturb the entire network.
• Bulky
• Very expensive over long distances
• They do not support high‐speed transmission, this is another disadvantage of
coaxial cable
11
Transmission Media
• Fiber‐Optic Cable
• This utilizes light signals to transmit data over long distances at high
speeds. Fiber optics are increasingly preferred for backbone networks
due to their high bandwidth and low signal loss.
• A fiber‐optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light. Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a
channel.

12
Transmission Media
• Cable Composition

• The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are
Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material
used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is
another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center
of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
13
Transmission Media
• Fiber‐Optic Cable Connectors
• The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a
push/pull locking system. The straight‐tip (ST) connector is used for
connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking
system (BNC‐ Bayonet Nut Connector or Bayonet Neill‐Concelman)
connector) and is more reliable than SC.
• MT‐RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

14
Transmission Media
• Advantages
• Higher bandwidth. Fiber‐optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths
(and hence data rates) than either twisted‐pair or coaxial cable.
• Less signal attenuation. Fiber‐optic transmission distance is significantly greater than
that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted‐pair cable.
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect
fiber‐optic cables.
• Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper.
• Light weight. Fiber‐optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
• Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber‐optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
15
Transmission Media
• Disadvantages
• Installation and maintenance. Fiber‐optic cable is a relatively new
technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet
available everywhere.
• Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
• Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media.

16
Unguided Media
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. They use wireless communication methods to
propagate signals through the air or free space.
• There is no need for a physical medium when it comes to unguided
media.
• Types of unguided media:
• Radio waves
• Microwaves Radio wave Microwave Infrared
• Infrared waves 3 1 300 400 900
KHz GHz GHz THz THz

2
Unguided Media
• Radio Waves
• Radio waves are electromagnetic signals used for various wireless
communication technologies, such as Wi‐Fi, Bluetooth, radio broadcasting
and even satellite communications all use radio waves..
• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that travel in the frequency range
of 3 KHz to 1GHz.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional i.e. radio waves spread in all directions
when they are released. Sending and receiving antennae do not need to be
oriented, and they can even pass through walls and other obstructions.
• Because devices and antennae using the same frequencies can interfere
with radio waves, wireless communication is also vulnerable to unwanted
access.
3
Unguided Media
• Micro Waves
• Microwaves are electromagnetic waves that have a frequency
between 1GHz and 300GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional, the sending and receiving antennas
must line up. Both point‐to‐point and point‐to‐multipoint
communications employ them.
• Towers with antennas at a distance must be tall because the antennae
must be aligned. As a result, the infrastructure is highly costly.

4
 Unguided Media
• Microwave antenna types

The parabolic dish works as a Outgoing transmissions are

funnel, catching a wide range of broadcast up a stem and
waves and directing them to a deflected outward in a series of
common point. In this way, narrow parallel beams by the
more of the signal is recovered curved head. Received
than would be possible with a transmissions are collected by
single-point receiver. the scooped shape of the horn,
in a manner similar to the
parabolic dish, and are deflected
down into the stem.

5
Unguided Media
• Infrared
• Infrared electromagnetic waves are those that travel between 300
GHz and 400 THz. Their high frequency and short wavelengths
prevent them from penetrating walls or objects. They are therefore
appropriate for short‐range communications.
• Furthermore, as infrared is also present in sun rays and might
interfere with communication, infrared waves should not be used
outdoors.
• It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

6
Performance measures of networks
• Bandwidth (B): A measure of the amount of information that a
particular computer network or Internet connection can send in a
particular time. It is often measured in bits per second
• Throughput (T): The throughput is a measure of how fast we can
actually send data through a network.
• Relationship between B & T: A link may have a bandwidth of B bps,
but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B.
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link;
the throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send
data.

7
Performance measures of networks
• Example: A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an
average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

• Latency (Delay): The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an
entire message to completely arrive at the destination from the time
the first bit is sent out from the source. Latency is made of four
components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and
processing delay.
• Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
8
Performance measures of networks
• Propagation Time
• Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from
the source to the destination. The propagation time is calculated by
dividing the distance by the propagation speed.
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation Speed
• Example
• If the distance is 100 meters and the propagation speed is
200,000,000 meters per second (a typical speed for signals in copper
cables), the propagation time would be 100/200,000,000 = 0.0000005
seconds, or 0.5 microseconds.

9
Performance measures of networks
• Transmission Time
• It is the time taken to send a data packet from source to destination. The
transmission time of a packet depends on the size of the packet and the
network bandwidth.
Transmission time = Packet Size / Bandwidth
• Example:
• A 100‐byte packet is sent over a 20 Kbps (kilobits per second) link.
• Transmission Time = (100 * 8) / 20,000 = 0.04 seconds = 40 milliseconds.
• A 1526‐byte packet is sent over a 100 Mbps (megabits per second) link.
• Transmission Time = (1526 * 8) / (100 * 1,000,000) = 0.00012208 seconds = 122
microseconds
10
Performance measures of networks
• Queuing Time
• The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed
factor; it changes with the load imposed on the network.
• Processing delay
• Processing delay is the time a network device (like a router) takes to
process a packet, specifically examining its header to determine its
next destination. This involves tasks like error checking and consulting
routing tables.

11
Performance measures of networks
• Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay

Propagation delay

Source Processing Queuing Transmission Destination

Delay Time Time

12
Performance measures of networks
• Jitter
• Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter different
delays and the application using the data at the receiver site is time‐
sensitive (audio and video data, for example). If the delay for the first
packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms,
then the real‐time application that uses the packets endures jitter.

13
Wireless/Mobile Communication Technologies
• Wireless communication is the transfer of information between two
or more points without the use of a physical medium like wires or
cables.
• Instead, signals are transmitted through the electromagnetic
spectrum using radio waves, microwaves, infrared, or optical
frequencies.
• It has become the backbone of modern connectivity, enabling
mobile phones, Wi‐Fi, satellite systems, and emerging technologies
like 5G and IoT.
Wireless/Mobile Communication Technologies
• Historical Background
• Communication began with wired telegraphy and telephony in the 19th
century.
• Guglielmo Marconi’s wireless telegraph (1895) is considered the starting
point of wireless communication.
• The 20th century witnessed rapid growth:
• Radio broadcasting (1920s)
• Television broadcasting (1930s–40s)
• Cellular networks (1980s onwards)
• Today, wireless technologies are integral to mobile networks, broadband
access, and global digital services.
Wireless/Mobile Communication Technologies
• Basic Concept
• Wireless communication relies on:
• Transmitter – Converts data into electromagnetic signals.
• Channel/Medium – The space through which signals travel (air, free space,
atmosphere).
• Receiver – Captures the transmitted signal and reconstructs the original
information.
• Transmission can be:
• Simplex (one‐way, e.g., radio broadcast)
• Half‐duplex (two‐way but not simultaneous, e.g., walkie‐talkies)
• Full‐duplex (two‐way simultaneous, e.g., mobile phones)
Wireless/Mobile Communication Technologies
• Characteristics of Wireless Communication
• Mobility – Users can access communication services on the move.
• Accessibility – Reaches remote or rural areas where wired infrastructure is
difficult.
• Scalability – Easy to expand coverage using base stations or satellites.
• Flexibility – Supports diverse applications (voice, data, multimedia).
Wireless/Mobile Communication Technologies
• Types of Wireless Communication Technologies
• Radio Communication (AM/FM radio, broadcast systems)
• Microwave Communication (point‐to‐point links, satellite relays)
• Infrared Communication (short‐range, e.g., TV remotes)
• Satellite Communication (global broadcasting, GPS, space links)
• Mobile Communication Networks (1G → 5G, evolving to 6G)
• Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) – Wi‐Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee
Radio Communication
• Radio communication is one of the earliest and most widely used forms of
wireless technology. It uses radio frequency (RF) waves ranging from 30 Hz
to 300 GHz. Information (voice, data, music) is modulated onto a carrier
wave and transmitted via antennas. At the receiver side, the signal is
demodulated to retrieve the original message.
• Advantages:
• Simple and inexpensive technology.
• Large coverage areas possible.
• Works well for broadcasting one‐to‐many (radio, TV).
• Limitations:
• Limited bandwidth → low data rates.
• Prone to noise, fading, and atmospheric interference.
• Security is weak as signals can be intercepted easily.
Microwave Communication
• Microwave communication uses high‐frequency radio waves (1 GHz –
30 GHz) to transmit information. Unlike lower‐frequency radio,
microwaves require a clear line‐of‐sight between transmitter and
receiver. They can be used in long‐distance telephony, as backbone of
telephone & internet networks, for satellite communication and GPS
navigation and wireless broadband backhaul.
Advantages:
• Supports very high bandwidth (up to several Gbps).
• Useful for both terrestrial and space communication.
• Faster deployment compared to cables.
• Limitations:
• Requires line‐of‐sight (cannot bend around obstacles).
• Affected by rain fade, fog, and atmospheric absorption.
• Higher cost for satellite deployment and maintenance
Infrared Communication
• Infrared (IR) communication uses infrared light (300 GHz – 400 THz) to
transmit information wirelessly over short distances. It uses LED or laser‐
based transmitters and photodiode receivers. Since infrared cannot
penetrate walls, it provides security for short‐range communication. The
various applications are TV and AC remote controls, wireless keyboards,
mice, printers, medical instruments and proximity sensors.
• Advantages:
• Safe, secure (cannot be intercepted through walls).
• Very low cost.
• No interference with radio systems.
• Limitations:
• Very short range (a few meters).
• Requires line‐of‐sight.
• Low data transmission rates compared to modern WLAN/Bluetooth.
Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication is the technology that enables information to be
transmitted between locations on Earth using satellites as relays. This system
involves sending signals from a ground station (transmitter) to a satellite, which
then transmits the signal to another ground station (receiver). The process
includes an uplink (ground to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to ground). These
systems are used for various applications like broadcasting, internet access, and
mobile communication.
• Advantages:
• Global coverage.
• Provides connectivity in remote or rural areas.
• Useful for broadcasting one‐to‐many communication.
• Limitations:
• Very expensive (launch and maintenance).
• Latency is high in GEO satellites (~250 ms delay).
• Weather effects (rain fade in Ku/Ka band)
Mobile Communication Networks
• Mobile or cellular networks are the most important wireless systems
today. They enable billions of people to access voice, text, and high‐
speed data worldwide.
• Generations of mobile communication networks
Mobile Communication Networks
• Comparison of mobile communication networks
Generation Year Technology Data Rate Services Introduced

Analog FDMA, MPS ‐ Advanced Mobile Phone System, NMT‐

1G 1980s ~2.4 kbps Voice only
Nordic Mobile Telephone
Digital GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), GPRS
9.6–64 Voice, SMS, MMS,
2G 1990s (General Packet Radio Service), EDGE (Enhanced Data for Global
kbps 2.5G Internet
Evolution ‐2.75G (384 Kbit/s)).
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems), WCDMA
384 kbps Internet, Video Calls,
3G 2000s (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), HSPA (High‐Speed
– 2 Mbps Multimedia
Packet Access) and HSPA+ (Evolved High‐Speed Packet Access).
100
LTE (Long Term Evolution, VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol, HD Streaming, Online
4G 2010s Mbps – 1
VoLTE (Voice over LTE Gaming, Apps
Gbps

Up to 10 IoT, Smart Cities,

5G 2020s NR (New Radio) technology
Gbps AR/VR, Automation
Mobile Communication Networks
• Applications:
• Mobile phones, tablets.
• IoT applications (smart homes, healthcare).
• Autonomous vehicles.
• AR/VR and Industry 4.0.
• Advantages:
• Supports mobility at high speeds.
• Scalable to billions of users.
• Continuous evolution with backward compatibility.
• Limitations:
• Requires massive infrastructure investments.
• Spectrum licensing costs are very high.
• Energy consumption of base stations is huge.
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
• WLANs provide wireless connectivity in a localized area such as homes,
offices, and campuses. They are essential for personal, business, and IoT
connectivity.
• Key Technologies:
• Wi‐Fi (IEEE 802.11 family)
• Works in 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz bands (newer versions use 6 GHz).
• Provides speeds up to 10 Gbps (Wi‐Fi 6E/7).
• Commonly used in homes, universities, and public hotspots.
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)
• Operates at 2.4 GHz.
• Range: 10–100 m.
• Applications: wireless headsets, keyboards, IoT devices.
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4)
• Low‐power, mesh networking protocol.
• Used in smart homes, industrial IoT.
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
• Applications:
• Wi‐Fi → Internet access.
• Bluetooth → Wearables, audio streaming.
• Zigbee → Smart home appliances.
• UWB → Asset tracking, keyless car entry.
• Advantages:
• Low cost and easy to install.
• High‐speed data transfer.
• Supports mobility indoors.
• Limitations:
• Limited coverage (~30–100 m).
• Security risks (Wi‐Fi hacking).
• Performance decreases with interference.
IEEE Standards
• IEEE standards are a set of technical specifications and procedures established by the IEEE
Standards Association (IEEE SA) to ensure interoperability and compatibility of technologies.
• These standards are used globally across various industries to promote innovation, safety, and
market growth.
IEEE Standard Description
IEEE 802 For LAN/MAN networks
IEEE 802.1 Standards for LAN/MAN management and bridging and remote media access control bridging.
IEEE 802.2 For Logical Link Control connectivity.
IEEE 802.3 Standards for CSMA/CD.
IEEE 802.4 Standards for the token passing bus access.
IEEE 802.5 For communication between LAN and MAN, and standard for token ring access.
IEEE 802.6 For exchanging information between systems
IEEE 802.7 For broadband LAN cable
IEEE 802.8 For Fiber‐optic connection
IEEE Standards

IEEE Standard Description

IEEE 802.9 For integrated services, like voice‐over video, etc.
IEEE 802.10 For security implementation in LAN/MAN
IEEE 802.11 For WiFi or Wireless Networking
IEEE 802.12 For demand Priority Access Method
IEEE 802.14 For Cable TV broadband communications
IEEE 802.15.1 For Bluetooth technology
IEEE 802.15.4 For Wireless Sensors or Control Systems
IEEE 802.15.6 For Wireless Body Area Network, like Bluetooth low energy
IEEE 802.16 For Wireless Network connectivity, like WiMax
IEEE 802. 24 To facilitate collaboration and coordination among all IEEE 802 standards