Information security

Information security (infosec) is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information

risks. It is part of information risk management.[1] It typically involves preventing or reducing the
probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure,
disruption, deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information. It
also involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected
information may take any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., paperwork), or intangible
(e.g., knowledge).[2][3] Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of data
confidentiality, integrity, and availability (known as the CIA triad, unrelated to the US government
organization)[4][5] while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without
hampering organization productivity.[6] This is largely achieved through a structured risk
management process.[7]

To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies,
and industry standards on passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, encryption software, legal
liability, security awareness and training, and so forth.[8] This standardization may be further driven
by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored,
transferred, and destroyed.[9]

While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information
security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,[10][11] with
information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security
specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of
computer system).

IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise/establishment due to the
nature and value of the data within larger businesses.[12] They are responsible for keeping all of the
technology within the company secure from malicious attacks that often attempt to acquire critical
private information or gain control of the internal systems.[13][14]

There are many specialist roles in Information Security including securing networks and allied
infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing,
business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics.[15]
Definitions

Information security standards are techniques generally outlined in published materials that attempt
to protect the information of a user or organization.[16] This environment includes users themselves,
networks, devices, all software, processes, information in storage or transit, applications, services,
and systems that can be connected directly or indirectly to networks.

The principal objective is to reduce the risks, including preventing or mitigating attacks. These
published materials consist of tools, policies, security concepts, security safeguards, guidelines, risk
management approaches, actions, training, best practices, assurance and technologies.

Information Security Attributes: or

qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity and
Availability (CIA). Information Systems are
composed in three main portions,
hardware, software and communications
with the purpose to help identify and apply
information security industry standards, as
mechanisms of protection and prevention,
at three levels or layers: physical, personal
and organizational. Essentially, procedures
or policies are implemented to tell
administrators, users and operators how to
use products to ensure information
security within the organizations.[17]

Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different
sources:

1. "Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other

properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be
involved." (ISO/IEC 27000:2018)[18]
 2. "The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use,
disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity,
and availability." (CNSS, 2010)[19]

3. "Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete
information (integrity) when required (availability)." (ISACA, 2008)[20]

4. "Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation."

(Pipkin, 2000)[21]

5. "...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of
information risk to the business." (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[22]

6. "A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance."
(Anderson, J., 2003)[23]

7. "Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing
information to unauthorized parties." (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[24]

8. "Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is

concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available
types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all
its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information
systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from
threats.[25]

9. Information and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices

means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access,
damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010).[26]

Threats

Information security threats come in many different forms.[27] Some of the most common threats
today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or
information, sabotage, and information extortion.[28][29] Viruses,[30] worms, phishing attacks, and
Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property
has also been an extensive issue for many businesses.[31] Identity theft is the attempt to act as
someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their
access to vital information through social engineering.[32][33] Sabotage usually consists of the
destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its
customers.[34] Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an
attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its
owner, as with ransomware.[35] One of the most functional precautions against these attacks is to
conduct periodical user awareness.[36]

Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organizations, and

private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees,
customers, products, research, and financial status.[37] Should confidential information about a
business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or hacker, a
business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to
the company's reputation.[38] From a business perspective, information security must be balanced
against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing
this concern.[39]

For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very
differently in various cultures.[40]

History

Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was
necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have
some means of detecting tampering.[41] Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar
cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should
a message fall into the wrong hands.[42] However, for the most part protection was achieved
through the application of procedural handling controls.[43][44] Sensitive information was marked up
to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a
secure environment or strong box.[45] As postal services expanded, governments created official
organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in
1653[46]).

In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow
governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.[47] For example, the
British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in
1889.[48] Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while
Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.[49] A public interest defense was soon added to
defend disclosures in the interest of the state.[50] A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The
Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack
down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.[51] A newer version was passed in 1923 that
extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance.[52] By the time of the
First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and
from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in
diplomatic and military headquarters.[53] Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as
machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.[54]

The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The need
for such appeared during World War II.[55] The volume of information shared by the Allied countries
during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and
procedural controls.[56] An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle
documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as
increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.[57] The Enigma Machine, which
was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by
Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.[58]
Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow
these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture
of U-570[58]).

Various mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more
sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth
by computer centers. As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States
Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication
to trade information within the United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the ARPANET project was
formulated by Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known as the internet.[59]

In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to
have many flaws such as the: "vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety
procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations", aside
from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had
effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public.[60] Due to these
problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential
increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, "network security" was often alluded to as
"network insecurity".[60]
 Poster promoting information security by
the Russian Ministry of Defence

The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid
advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.[61]
The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made
electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home users.[62] The
establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP) in the early 1980s
enabled different types of computers to communicate.[63] These computers quickly became
interconnected through the internet.[64]

The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business
conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled
the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process,
and transmit.[65] The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance
emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of
ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.[66]

Security Goals

CIA triad

The "CIA triad" of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.[67]
The concept was introduced in the Anderson Report in 1972 and later repeated in The Protection of
Information in Computer Systems. The abbreviation was coined by Steve Lipner around 1986.[68]

Debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing
technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the
intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security
and privacy.[4] Other principles such as "accountability" have sometimes been proposed; it has been
pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.[69]

Confidentiality

In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or
disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes."[70] While similar to "privacy", the two
words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to
protect our data from unauthorized viewers.[71] Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being
compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect
individuals.[72]

Integrity

In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of
data over its entire lifecycle.[73] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or
undetected manner.[74] This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it
can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of
transaction processing.[75] Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure
their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and
accidental threats.[76] Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the
data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may
not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud,
and privacy breaches.[77]

More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process, and
commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility,
consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.[78]

Availability

For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is
needed.[79] This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the
security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be
functioning correctly.[80] High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing
service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.[81] Ensuring
availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages
to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.[82]

In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important
parts of a successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform
job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an
organization's stakeholders expect.[83] This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside
web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails.[84] Executives
oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an
easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as
network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy/change
management.[85] A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh
and align for the "CIA" triad to be provided effectively.[86]

Additional security goals

In addition to the classic CIA triad of security goals, some organisations may want to include
security goals like authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation, and reliability.

Non-repudiation

In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies
that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party
deny having sent a transaction.[87]

It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-
repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of
technology.[88] It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature
signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and
nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity).[89] The alleged sender could in return
demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his
signing key has been compromised.[90] The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the
sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would
invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the
sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-
repudiation).[91]
Other models

In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and
Networks[92] proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response,
ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and
reassessment.[93] Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information
Technology Security[69] proposed 33 principles.

In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic "CIA" triad that he called the six
atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity,
availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security
professionals.[94]

In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[95] This
standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called
"security objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and
technical (4).

Risk management

Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or
the loss of the asset).[96] A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause
harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the
potential to cause harm.[97] The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates
a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.[98] In the context of
information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly
other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).[99]

The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 defines risk management as
"the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an
organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures,[100] if any, to
take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the
organization."[101]

There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk
management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business
environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.[102]
Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance
between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational
asset being protected.[103] Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are
generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated.[104] Thus, any
process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.[105] It is not possible to
identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called "residual risk".[106]

A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the
business.[107] Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are
assessed.[108] The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed
opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use
quantitative analysis.

Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user,
operator, designer, or other human.[109] The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information
security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:

security policy,

organization of information security,

asset management,

human resources security,

physical and environmental security,

communications and operations management,

access control,

information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,

information security incident management,

business continuity management

regulatory compliance.

In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:[110][111]

1. Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware,
software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.[112]

2. Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts
originating from inside or outside the organization.[113]
 3. Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it
will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality
control, technical security.[114]

4. Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or
quantitative analysis.[115]

5. Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider
productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.[116]

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required
cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.[117]

For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of
the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.[118]
Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control
measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by
buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.[119] The reality of some risks may be disputed.
In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.[120]

Security controls

Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down
risk to acceptable levels.[121] Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk
assessment.[122] Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the
confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different
areas.[123] Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the
organization.[124] ISO/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security
standards.[125]
Defense in depth

The onion model of defense in depth

Defense in depth is a fundamental security philosophy that relies on overlapping security systems
designed to maintain protection even if individual components fail. Rather than depending on a
single security measure, it combines multiple layers of security controls both in the cloud and at
network endpoints. This approach includes combinations like firewalls with intrusion-detection
systems, email filtering services with desktop anti-virus, and cloud-based security alongside
traditional network defenses.[126] The concept can be implemented through three distinct layers of
administrative, logical, and physical controls,[127] or visualized as an onion model with data at the
core, surrounded by people, network security, host-based security, and application security
layers.[128] The strategy emphasizes that security involves not just technology, but also people and
processes working together, with real-time monitoring and response being crucial components.[126]

Classification

An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of
information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the
information.[129] Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of
protection.[130] This requires information to be assigned a security classification.[131] The first step
in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the
particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy.[132] The policy should
describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a
particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.[133]

Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much
value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the
information has become obsolete.[134] Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important
considerations when classifying information.[135] The Information Systems Audit and Control
Association (ISACA) and its Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool for
security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment
where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.[136]

The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of
the organization, with examples being:[133]

In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.

In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret,
Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.[137]

In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber,
and Red.

In the personal sector, one label such as Financial. This includes activities related to managing
money, such as online banking.[138]

All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification
schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each
classification.[139] The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should
be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to
ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right
procedures.[140]

Access control

Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the
information.[141] The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the
information, must also be authorized.[142] This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the
access to protected information.[142] The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should
be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the
information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.[143] The foundation on which access
control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.[144]

Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and

authorization.[145][72]
Identification

Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the
statement "Hello, my name is John Doe" they are making a claim of who they are.[146] However, their
claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it
will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.[147] Typically
the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming "I am the person
the username belongs to".[148]

Authentication

Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a
withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.[149] The bank teller asks to see
a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.[150] The bank teller checks the license to make
sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person
claiming to be John Doe.[151] If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has
authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password,
the user is providing evidence that he/she is the person the username belongs to.[152]

There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:[153][154]

Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name[155][156]

Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card[157][158]

Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina (eye)
scans[159]

Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-
factor authentication).[160] The username is the most common form of identification on computer
systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.[161] Usernames and
passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.[162] Usernames and
passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication
mechanisms such as time-based one-time password algorithms.[163]

Authorization

After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it
must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions
they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).[164] This is called authorization.
Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative
policies and procedures.[165] The policies prescribe what information and computing services can
be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then
configured to enforce these policies.[166] Different computing systems are equipped with different
kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control
mechanisms.[167] The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three
approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.[72]

The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized

administration.[168] The access to information and other resources is usually based on the
individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.[169][170] The
discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control
access to those resources.[168] In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or
denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.[141]

Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control,
available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the
UNIX and Windows operating systems;[171] Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network
systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and
routers.[172]

To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective
policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.[173] The U.S. Treasury's guidelines
for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and
successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must
leave some type of audit trail.[174]

Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This
principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.[175] This principle is used in
the government when dealing with difference clearances.[176] Even though two employees in
different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for
information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the
employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what they
are supposed to.[177] Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad.
Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.[178]
Cryptography

Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it
unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.[179] Information
that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form
by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption.[180]
Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental
disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while
information is in storage.[72]

Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including
improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and
encrypted network communications.[181] Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure
Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.[182] Wireless communications can be
encrypted using protocols such as WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired
communications (such as ITU‑T [Link]) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for
authentication and key exchange.[183] Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to
encrypt data files and email.[184]

Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.[185]

Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have
undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.[186] The length and
strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration.[187] A key that is weak or too short
will produce weak encryption.[187] The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected
with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.[188] They must be protected
from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when needed. Public key
infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management.[72]

Process

U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing
to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.[189]

In the field of information security, Harris[190] offers the following definitions of due care and due
diligence:
 "Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken
responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and
has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and
employees[191]." And, [Due diligence are the] "continual activities that make
sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and
operational."[192]

Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.[193][194] First, in due care,
steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce
tangible artifacts.[195][196] Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that
people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these
activities are ongoing.[197]

Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security.
The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)[198] provides principles and practices for
evaluating risk.[199] It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.[200] DoCRA helps
evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a
reasonable burden.[201] With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security
controls, compliance, and its mission.[202]

Incident response plans

Computer security incident management is a specialized form of incident management focused on

monitoring, detecting, and responding to security events on computers and networks in a
predictable way.[203]

Organizations implement this through incident response plans (IRPs) that are activated when
security breaches are detected.[204] These plans typically involve an incident response team (IRT)
with specialized skills in areas like penetration testing, computer forensics, and network
security.[205]

Change management

Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information
processing environment.[206][207] This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network,
servers, and software.[208] The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by
changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the
processing environment as changes are made.[209] It is not the objective of change management to
prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.[210][211]

Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.[212] Even
apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.[213] One of management's many
responsibilities is the management of risk.[214][215] Change management is a tool for managing the
risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.[216] Part of the change
management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they
may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.[217]

Not every change needs to be managed.[218][219] Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday
routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall
level of risk to the processing environment.[220] Creating a new user account or deploying a new
desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management.[221]
However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk
to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity.[222] The critical first steps in
change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining
the scope of the change system.[223]

Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives

from key business areas,[224] security, networking, systems administrators, database administration,
application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.[225] The tasks of the change review
board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.[226] The responsibility of
the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management
procedures are followed.[227] The change management process is as follows[228]

Request: Anyone can request a change.[229][230] The person making the change request may or
may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.[231][232] When
a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the
requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to
determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.[233]

Approve: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore,
management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.[234]
Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the
business model, industry standards or best practices.[235][236] Management might also choose to
reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the
change.[237]
 Plan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change;
analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and
documenting both implementation and back-out plans.[238] Need to define the criteria on which a
decision to back out will be made.[239]

Test: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual
production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.[240] The
backout plan must also be tested.[241]

Schedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of
changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other
scheduled changes or critical business activities.[242]

Communicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.[243] The

communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other
changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the
change.[244] The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a
change is about to occur.[245] Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that
scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the
change or otherwise have an interest in the change.[246][247]

Implement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.[248][249] Part of the
planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out
plan.[250][251] If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing
fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.[252]

Document: All changes must be documented.[253][254] The documentation includes the initial
request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation,[255] testing and
back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was
implemented,[256] who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully,
failed or postponed.[257][258]

Post-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of
changes.[259] It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review
board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for
improvement.[259]

Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the
overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.[260] Good
change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are
implemented.[261] This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and
communication.[262]

ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[263]
(Full book summary),[264] and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and
effective change management program information security.[265]

Business continuity

Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's

critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the
effects.[266][267] BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with
current threats to the continuation of business as usual.[268] The BCM should be included in an
organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what
they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.[269]

It encompasses:

Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential
failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;[270][271]

Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum
acceptable periods of data loss);[272]

Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g.
engineering IT systems and processes for high availability,[273] avoiding or preventing situations
that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating
premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation[274] assessment and invoking recovery
plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal
positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);[275]

Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and
strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;

Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;[276]

Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the
work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team
building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and
activities[277] (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security,
operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things
 change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate
investment;

Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting key
parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the
arrangements will go to plan if invoked.[278]

Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the
probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on
resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.[279] A disaster recovery plan,
invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information
and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure.[280] Disaster recovery planning includes
establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing
recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification
criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[281]

Laws and regulations

Privacy International 2007 privacy ranking

green: Protections and safeguards
red: Endemic surveillance societies

Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that
have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.[282][283]
Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact
on information security.[282]

The UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of
information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such
information.[284][285] The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U.
members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens
throughout the E.U.[286][287]

The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g.,
hacking) a criminal offense.[288] The act has become a model upon which several other
countries,[289] including Canada and Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently
drafting their own information security laws.[290][291]

The E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone
companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six
months and two years.[292]

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. § 1232 ([Link]
[Link]/uscode/text/20/1232) g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of
student education records.[293] The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an
applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.[294] Generally, schools must have written
permission from the parent or eligible student[294][295] in order to release any information from a
student's education record.[296]

The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors
specifies requirements for online banking security.[297]

The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of
national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers,
health insurance plans, and employers.[298] Additionally, it requires health care providers,
insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.[299]

The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services
Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that
financial institutions collect, hold, and process.[300]

Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to
assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they
submit at the end of each fiscal year.[301] Chief information officers are responsible for the
security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data.[302]
The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must
attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.[303]

The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive
requirements for enhancing payment account data security.[304] It was developed by the founding
payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council — including American Express, Discover
Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide,[305] and Visa International — to help facilitate the
broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis.[306] The PCI DSS is a
multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies,
procedures, network architecture, software design, and other critical protective measures.[307]
 State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses,
nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal information"
may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.[308]

The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada supports
and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or
disclosed in certain circumstances,[309][310] by providing for the use of electronic means to
communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act,
the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.[311][312][313]

Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165/2011)
establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by
every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or services in Greece in
order to protect customers' confidentiality.[314] These include both managerial and technical
controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).[315]

Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205/2013)
concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data
offered by Greek telecommunication companies.[316] The law forces these and other related
companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant
infrastructures.[317]

The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD
Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information
assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT)
certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense
have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and
Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the
[Link]'s CISSP, etc.[318]

Culture

Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the
ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both
positive and negative ways.[319] Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization
work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization.
The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on
information security in organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of
information security culture in organizations:[320]
 Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the
organizational security of information.[321]

Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or
indirect impact on information security.

Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities,
and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.

Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for
security issues, and incident reporting.

Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such

policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.

Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally
deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations
regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication
technologies.

Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical
factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.

Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the
organization Information Security "effort" and often take actions that ignore organizational
information security best interests.[322] Research shows information security culture needs to be
improved continuously. In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors
commented, "It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To
manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic
planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[323]

Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze
current security policy

Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets.

Clustering people is helpful to achieve it

Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication,

management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs

Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational

members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees[323]
 Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous
improvement

See also

Backup

Capability-based security

Data-centric security

Enterprise information security architecture

Gordon–Loeb model for information security investments

Identity-based security

Information infrastructure

Information privacy

Information security indicators

Information technology

IT risk

ITIL security management

Kill chain

List of computer security certifications

Mobile security

Network Security Services

Privacy engineering

Privacy-enhancing technologies

Security convergence

Security information management

Security level management

Security of Information Act

Security service (telecommunication)

 Verification and validation

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Further reading

Anderson, K., "IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market ([Link]
g/web/20080402234040/[Link]
or-changing-market/article/33990/) ", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.

Aceituno, V., "On Information Security Paradigms", ISSA Journal, September 2005.

Easttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.

Lambo, T., "ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification", ISSA Journal, November 2006.

Dustin, D., " Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It ([Link]
[Link]/2017/05/[Link]) ", "CDR Blog", May
2017.

Dhillon, G., "The intellectual core of Information Systems Security ([Link]

s/V19/N2/[Link]) ", Journal of Information Systems Security, Vol. 19, No 2.

External links

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org/web/20110906012808/[Link] 2011-09-06 at the
Wayback Machine on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.

patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained ([Link]

[Link])

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[Link]/web/20191108164220/[Link] 2019-11-08 at the Wayback
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Ross Anderson's book "Security Engineering" ([Link]