MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

PSY 310: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GROUP (EDS/SAAR/SAE)

Lecture Hrs-42(Three hrs per week) Venue -MPH

COURSE RATIONALE:
It is important for any well-educated person to understand to some degree how we as human
beings develop through the life span. Human Growth and Development addresses the
physical, cognitive, and psychological changes we encounter as we pass through life, from
pre-natal development to death. Students taking this course will be allowed to explore, discuss
and learn about important developmental psychological principles, and to apply these
principles in understanding their own respective growth and development.

COURSE CONTENT
Concepts of growth and development; Nature and Principles of human growth and
development; Theories of Human Growth and Development from Prenatal environment to
Death; Major genetic and environmental influences on human development; Development
tasks of infanthood, Early Childhood, Middle and Late Childhood, Adolescence and
Adulthood; Physiological growth patterns ,Cognitive ; Moral; Language; Emotional and
Personality- Social development across human life span; Domains and Stages of human
development- Physical, Social, Moral, Language, Personality, Cognitive and Emotional
development; Educational implications of the mentioned stages of human development.

COURSE ASSEMSSMENT AND EVALUATION

(1) Continuous Assessment - 30% THREE CATS
(2) End of semester Examination - 70%

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

This course is offered to 3rd year B. Ed students during the first semester of the academic year.
It is taught in 14 weeks. By the end of the course, the student will be able to:-

 Explain theories and principles human growth and development

 Explain major genetic and environmental influences on human development;
 Trace growth and development from prenatal environment to death
 Describe developmental tasks in infanthood, early childhood, middle and late
childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
 Discuss physiological growth patterns ,cognitive development, emotional and
personality development across the human life span
 Explain the main stages of physical, social, moral, language,personality, cognitive
and emotional development.
 Educational implications of the above mentioned stages of human development.

MODE OF DELIVERY
The mode of delivery will be lectures, problem-based learning, interactive tutorials; group
based presentations and independent studies.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND/OR EQUIPMENTS

The instructional materials and equipments relevant for the study include lecturer notebooks,
chalkboard whiteboard ; LCD/Overhead projector and handouts
.

1
REFERENCES

Davidoff, ff L.L; (1981) Introduction to psychology. 2nd (ed). McGraw-Hill International

Book Company Auckland.
Hothersall, D. (1984) History of Psychology. Random Hse, New York.
Zimbardo.P. G. (1985) Psychology and life. Scott, Foresman and company, Glenview, Illinois
Sullivan, F. M (1986) Life story: Biology for school and College. Oliver and Boyd. Edinburg.
Igaga, J. M (1990) General Educational Psychology 3rd (ed). Oxford and IBH Publishing
Company. New Delhi.
Ingule [Link] (1972) Introduction to Psychology. East African Educational Publishers. Nairobi,
Kampala.

Course Outline Updated On: 13th Sept. 2024

2
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
One of the most important features of all living beings is change. The changes are most
striking when we see the transition in human life spanning from conception to death. The
journey from an unborn baby to an adult and then on to an old person is very fascinating.
Even a casual observation of the human lives around you will make it clear that several
changes happen each day in our bodies and psychological functioning. Some changes are
noticeable while some cannot be immediately or clearly observed. Some of these changes are
determined more by hereditary or genetic factors, while some depend more on environmental
and cultural factors.

Different cultures hold different goals for development and use different strategies to bring up
children. In order to help individuals develop in the best way possible, it is important to
understand the nature and process of development throughout the life-span. This is the
concept human growth and Development

What is human growth and development?

 The scientific study of human behaviour from conception to adulthood.

It is a science
1. The study is systematic i.e. body of information can be classified in an orderly and
consistent manner.
2. It is empirical: The information can be gathered by means of observation and
experimentations.
3. Its terms and terminologies are clear and definable.
4. It attempts to be accurate and reliable in its measurement.

IQ = M.A X 100 i.e mental age x100

C.A chronological age

The Concept of “Development”

The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which an
individual grows and changes throughout its life-span. It is often thought of as the process of
qualitative change taking place from conception to death. In this way development is a broad
term and deals with all areas including physical, motor, cognitive, physiological, social,
emotional and personality. It should be noted that developments in all these areas are inter-
related. For example, a 13 year-old girl undergoes physical and biological changes in her
body and such changes are in turn related to her mental, social and emotional development.
Life begins at conception when mother’s ovum fertilized by the father’s sperm and a new
organism is created. From that point till death an individual keeps on changing.

Such changes are not random but orderly and generally follow a pattern. It may be noted that
the developmental changes are not always incremental or evolutionary. They may also
involve a decline in the functioning called “involution”. A child loses milk teeth in the
process of development while an old person may show decay in memory and physical
functioning. Development, therefore, is best viewed as a gain-loss relationship in which
newer and different kinds of changes take place. Older behavior patterns may lose their
salience while new ones may emerge.

3
Development is shaped by the joint influences of both nature and nurture in a cultural context.
Nature refers to the hereditary contribution a child receives from parents at the time of
conception. Genetics determines several aspects of a person’s physical structure and
functioning as well as some psychological characteristics to a certain extent. Nurture refers to
the influences of the complex physical and social ecology in which we develop and grow.
Various aspects of the child’s ecology (e.g. physical facilities, social institutions and rituals,
and school) influence the developmental outcomes in important ways.

Key Developmental Concepts

The term “development” is often used interchangeably with “growth” and
“maturation”, but these terms need to be carefully distinguished.

“Growth” generally refers to the quantitative additions or changes in the organic structure.
For instance as we become older, the body size, height, weight, proportion of parts of our
body change in measurable ways. Also, the vocabulary increases.
It can be measured in terms of physical unit: CM, M, G e.t.c.
It is the change in physical structure as a result of multiplication of cells
It is the quantitative increase in size and structure.

“Development” on the other hand, is a broader term which often includes growth, but is
used more to refer to functional and qualitative changes in cognitive ability, perceptual
ability, personality and emotional development and so on.
Development is changes in the functional capabilities of bodily parts.
Development is the immerging and expanding of the capacities of the individual in order to
provide greater facility in functioning. This development can be enhanced through
reinforcement and exposure to reach adherent experience.
It is the sequential and continuous process both quantitatively and qualitatively resulting into
integrating functions.
It is achieved through growth and interaction with the environment.

“Maturation” is a term that refers to the natural unfolding of changes with increasing age,
e.g. hormonal changes as the individual reaches puberty. An example of this can be seen in
breast development which is influenced by release of estrogen when a girl reaches
adolescence.
Maturation refers to the changes which are primarily biological in nature and occur due to our
genetic programme. Our biological structure follows a predetermined course of changes with
time. This can be seen in the development of teeth during childhood. Changes in body
proportions with age provide an example of such predetermined universal trends. The size of
the head is roughly half of the whole body at birth, but the proportion keeps decreasing until
adulthood, when it is less than one-fourth of the whole body.

Therefore, maturation is simply the unfolding and ripening of the characteristics an

potentialities present at birth which is determined by genes. Basically it comprises atomical
and chemical changes that instantly go on all the time in the individual without control.
Maturational changes in our body are primarily due to the ageing process rather than learning
or other factors such as illness or injury.

4
It must be noted that changes in behavior also occur due to “learning”. Learning takes place
as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment. Maturation provides the raw
material and sets the stage for learning to occur. Taking the case of learning to read, the child
needs to be biologically ready. The eyes need to develop proper focusing ability before a
child can learn to read. Therefore, maturation and learning jointly bring about changes in a
person’s behaviour.

“Evolution” is a term that refers to species-specific changes. Evolutionary changes happen

very gradually and are passed on from one generation to the other so that the species is better
equipped for survival. The evolution from apes to human beings took place over a period of
about 14 million years. Changes that occur at the level of species are called phylogenetic and
those that occur at the level of individual are called ontogenetic. The term evolution is also
used to describe the incremental changes that take place in the course of development.

Characteristics/Features of Development

 Development is a life-long process, spanning from conception till death.

Developmental changes are often systematic, progressive, uniform and orderly. They
usually follow a pattern, proceeding from general to specific , and from simple to
complex and integrated levels of functioning. Development follows an orderly sequence,
defined sequence pattern or order, e.g a child would start to sit, crawl, stand with
support of objects, starts to walk then finally run – although different from individual to
another, it is similar. The main trends are:-
a) Cephalocaudal – development proceeds from the head towards the limbs.
b) Proximodistal – development proceeds from the centre (proximo: head 2 nd
week to 2nd month) part of the body outwards (distal: limps appear in 8 th
week).
c) Locomotion – involves creeping, crawling, walking and running. Time may
vary but the sequence is the same for infants across cultures

 Development is multi-directional, i.e. some areas may show a sharp increase while
other areas may show a decline. Developmental changes usually involve an increase
in maturity towards higher levels of functioning, e.g. increase in vocabulary’s size
and complexity. But it may also involve a decrease or loss, such as in bone density or
memory in old age. Moreover the rate of growth and development is not always
constant. ‘Plateaus’ are often seen in the pattern of development, indicating
periods of no apparent improvement
.
 Developmental changes can be quantitative, e.g. increase in height with age, or
qualitative, e.g. formation of moral values.

 Development is both continuous as well as discontinuous process. Some changes

may occur very rapidly and be overtly visible, such as appearance of the first tooth,
while some changes may not be sharp enough to be observed easily in day-to-day
functioning, such as understanding of grammar. An individual’s life is never an
ending process. Development is a continuous process which starts from conception to
death. It is not always smooth and gradual i.e. there are moments of spurts and lulls.
There are times of lack of uniformity in developmental rates. There are spurts and
lulls during development e.g children from rich backgrounds and those from poor
backgrounds, early maturers and late maturers.

5
  Development is predictable. The structure of the individual can be predicted. The
development of the bones of the child predicts his body structure.
 Developmental changes are relatively stable. The temporary changes due to weather,
fatigue or other chance factors will not qualify as development.
 Developmental changes are multi-dimensional and inter-related. They may happen
together in many areas at a time, or can occur one at a time. During adolescence there
are rapid changes in the body as well as in emotional, social and cognitive
functioning.
 Development is highly plastic or flexible. This means that the same person may
suddenly show greater improvement in a particular area than expected from the past
rate of development. An enriched environment can produce unexpected changes in
the physical strength, or in memory and intelligence levels.
 Developmental domains are integrated
Involves movement from whole to parts . Development proceeds from general to the
specific e.g. a newly born baby only communicates through crying but later on will
indicate the source of discomfort.
 Developmental domain are interrelated
e.g A healthy body tends to develop a healthy mind that leads to an emotionally
stable individual. Different aspects of development are interrelated i.e. physical,
social, language, morals, etc.
 Developmental domains are interactive
Human development is a product of the forces of nurture and nature i.e inheritance
and environmental forces. Development is a product of the interaction between the
individual and the environment i.e. nature versus nurture.

 Development is contextual. It is influenced by historical, environmental and socio-

cultural factors. The loss of a parent, an accident, a war, an earthquake and child-
rearing customs are examples of factors which may influence development.

 Development is an individualized process. There are considerable individual

differences in the rate or tempo of developmental changes. These differences could
be due to hereditary factors or environmental influences. Some children can be very
precocious for their age, while some children show developmental delays. For
example, though an average child begins to speak 3 word sentences around 3 years of
age, there will be some children who have mastered this much before 2 years, while
there will be some who are not able to speak full sentences even by 4 years.
Moreover, there will be some children who are not able to speak even beyond the
upper limit of the range. Each child has his/her own rate of physical, mental,
emotional and social development. When teaching, vary your methods of teaching.
Human beings are unique. For instance rate of development differs in male and
female children i.e. girls mature earlier than boys.

Domains /Aspects of Development

Development is an inclusive term that incorporates changes in several areas. These areas or
domains deal with 3 broad categories:

6
1. Physical and motor development: It refers to changes in body-size and structure,
functioning of various body systems, brain development, perceptual and motor development.
2. Cognitive development: It refers to the development of cognitive and intellectual
processes, including memory, attention, intelligence, academic knowledge, problem solving,
imagination and creativity. It also includes development of language.
3. Socio-emotional development: It refers to how we develop relationships with other
people, and how our emotions emerge and change as we grow older. It includes emotional
communication and self-control, understanding of self and others, interpersonal skills,
personality, and emergence of friendship and moral reasoning.

NOTE Inter-relatedness of the domains of development

These domains or areas are inter-related and combine in a holistic manner to make a
person’s developmental pattern unique. Each domain influences and is influenced by others.
As a baby develops physically, several motor skills are acquired. As the baby becomes
capable of grasping, reaching, sitting, crawling, standing and walking, he/she is able to better
explore the environment, resulting in further cognitive development. Improved thinking and
understanding helps formation of better social relations as well as emotional expression and
comprehension. On the whole, each domain helps the child move towards enriched
experiences, learning and overall development.

Stages of Development
Even though development is a continuous process, some theorists believe that various stages
can be identified for the sake of locating major shifts and determining the developmental
tasks. This helps in monitoring the pace of developmental changes.
It must be pointed out that there is no sharp dividing line between them. Each stage has
certain characteristic features and prepares the ground for the next stage. Some theorists have
suggested stages in specific areas of development. For instance, Piaget who identified stages
of cognitive development and , Freud who suggested stages of psycho-sexual development.
These theories are explained in other lessons.

Developmental Stages: A Life Span Perspective

Most psychologists identify the following stages of development:
 Prenatal period (from conception to birth) : In this period, the single-celled
organism changes into a human baby within the womb.
 Infancy and toddlerhood (birth-2 years): Rapid changes in the body and brain help
several sensory, motor, social and cognitive capacities to emerge.
 Early childhood: (2-6 years): Motor skills are refined, language develops, ties are
formed with peers, and the child learns through play.
 Middle childhood (6-11 years): These are the school years when the child acquires
literacy skills, thought processes are refined, friendships emerge and
self-concept is formed.
 Adolescence (11-20 years): This period is marked by puberty which signals the onset
of rapid physical and hormonal changes, emergence of abstract thinking, sexual
maturity, stronger peer ties, sense of self and autonomy from parental control.
 Early adulthood (20-40 years): This is the stage of life when the youngster leaves
home for the sake of education, or to find a career, and to form intimate relationships
leading to marriage and having children.

7
  Middle adulthood (40-60 years): At this stage the person is at the peak of his/ her
career. There is a need to help children begin independent lives, and to look after own
parents who are aging.
 Late adulthood (60 years till death): This period is marked by retirement from work,
decrease in stamina and physical health, bonding with grand-children and dealing
with impending old age and death of self and spouse.

Developmental Tasks
Each developmental stage is characterized by a dominant feature or a leading characteristic
which determines its uniqueness. For example, a child is expected to go to school and study
while an adult is expected to work and raise a family. Certain characteristics stand out more
prominently than others and each period is called a stage. People learn certain behavior
patterns and skills more easily and successfully at certain stages and this becomes a social
expectation.

For example, a child is supposed to be able to go independently to school in middle

childhood. Such social expectations of a particular age common to all persons constitute
“developmental tasks”. If a person is able to master the developmental task of a particular
stage, he or she is considered to have successfully moved on to the next stage of development.

Influences on Development
It is important to understand the factors that determine the course of development. Each one
of us is a product of genetic factors and environmental influences as described below
A. Genetic Influences
At the time of conception, the ovum of the mother and the sperm cell of the father unite to
form a new cell. The small particles in the nucleus of the cell are called chromosomes. The
chromosomes exist in pairs. The human cell has 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. One
member from each pair comes from the mother and the other one from the father.
Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information.
The genes, which are the actual trait carriers, are found in very large numbers in each
chromosome. The fertilized zygote brings together various combinations of chromosomes. In
this way, different genes are transferred from each child of the same set of parents. Due to this
reason each child bears greater similarity to his on her blood relatives than to anyone else. At
the same time there are also many differences amongst blood relatives.

B. Genotypes and Phenotypes

Genetic transmission is a complex process. Most characteristics that we observe in human
beings are combinations of a large number of genes. Innumerable permutations and
combinations of genes are responsible for the large differences in physical and psychological
characteristics.
Only identical or monozygotic twins have exactly the same set of chromosomes and genes as
they are formed by duplication of a single zygote. Most twins are fraternal
or di-zygotic, who develop from two separate zygotes. These fraternal twins may
resemble each other like brother and sister, but they will also be different from one another in
many ways.
Genes can be dominant or recessive. It is a known fact that there is more color blindness or
lack of sensitivity to certain colors among males than females. A grandmother and mother can
transmit this condition to the male child without being color blind themselves. This is because

8
in the male this disorder is dominant, whereas in female it is recessive. The genes form pairs.
If both genes in a pair are dominant, the individual will display the specific trait (e.g. color
blindness). If one gene is dominant and the other recessive, the dominant will prevail. The
recessive gene will be passed on and may show up in a later generation.
The dominant gene, therefore, is the one responsible for a particular trait to show up in a
person. The characteristics which show up and are displayed e.g. eye color, are called
phenotypes. The recessive gene does not show up as a trait, unless paired with another gene
just like it. The characteristics that are carried genetically as recessive genes but are not
displayed are called genotypes.
Genotype, therefore, refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage while
phenotype refers to the individual’s physical and behavioral characteristics which are
determined by both genetic and environmental factors.

Heredity is thus one of the internal factors that involves what is transferred to the offspring
from it immediate parent e.g. Height, Weight, Colour of eyes, Skin characteristics, X-tics of
the hair, Physical structure, Nervous system

Other Internal Factors

Biological factors
An individual constitutional make up structure, Physique and body chemistry do
influence his/her growth and depth throughout his life time.
Intelligence
The individual ability to learn, adjust and take right decisions has a significant role in
his growth and development. Therefore intelligence controls the individuals’
emotional, social and language development
Emotional
The individuals emotional adjustment/ adjustability and maturity affects his growth
and development e.g. negative emotions like fear, anxiety do affect the individuals
physical, psychosocial and mental development
Social nature
An individual’s socialization helps him/her in achieving adjustment and
advancement in other aspects of his growth and development.

C. Environmental Influences
Nature refers to what a child has inherited genetically from her parents, while the influence of
environment on the development of the child is referred to as nurture. To understand the
development of a person, we have to study the complex interaction between nature and
nurture or heredity and environment. Environmental influences are important both at the
prenatal and postnatal stages of human development. At the prenatal stage, when a fetus is in
the mother’s womb, internal or external harmful agents, such as certain legal or illegal drugs,
alcohol, lead and pollutants can harm the unborn baby’s development. The mother’s
nutrition, diseases and emotional stress can also affect the development of the fetus.
After birth, several types of environmental factors operate to influence the development of the
child. The ecological systems theory of development views environmental factors organized
as concentric circles of systems.

Ecological systems influencing human development

The micro-system is the immediate environment at home and interactions between them and
the child’s own characteristics. The meso-system consists of the relationships between
family members and school and neighborhood. The exo-system refers to the influences of

9
indirect agencies such as work-place of the parents or community services. The macro-system
is the outermost layer which includes cultural values, laws and customs. The systems are
ever-changing and dynamic. There is also a chronosystem which refers to the time
dimension. As the child grows, there are changes within each system, and also changes due to
the child’s interaction with the environment. On the whole, in ecological systems theory,
children are both products and producers of their environments, in a network of
interdependent effects.

The present view of development gives importance to both nature and nurture.
Heredity and environment are inseparably interwoven, each affecting the impact of the other
on the child. Development therefore has certain universal features, as well as features unique
to the individual. It is important to understand the role of heredity, but more fruitful to
understand how the environment can be improved, so as to help the child develop in the best
possible way within the limits set by heredity.

Environmental determinants can be classified under External factors. Some specific

examples include:
A) The events in the womb of an expectant mother (Prenatal )
Conditions within the womb of the mother that major affect the child are
a. Maternal Emotional state e.g. worries, stress. Excessive stress in the 7 th month of pregnancy
may result to cleft palate (lip).
b. The age of the mothers under the age of 18 yrs and over 40 yrs tend to have high
proportion of mentally retarded children.
c. Drugs taken by expectant mothers e.g. Antihuman drugs diabetic drugs and other drugs are
likely to harm the fetus
 Narcotics e.g. Heroine cocaine may lead to baby withdraw premature birth
miscarriages
 Excessive alcohol leads to fetal alcoholic syndrome that is x-terised by facial
abnornomalities, limbs defects and affects mental development of a child
 Thalidomide (treats morning sickness) in excess affects the limbs of the foetus.
d. Poor nutrition especially for the mother leads to still birth and low birth weight.
e. Cases of maternal diseases
 German measles can cause mental, visual and heart abnormalities
 Maternal syphilis and gonorrhea affects nervous system causing genital weakness still
birth blindness.
f. Exposure to radiation e.g. x-rays damages the genes in the cell of the fetus hence leading to
mental retardation, heart diseases, leukemia, malformation of eyes and abortion.
g. Incompatible Rhesus factor between the father and mother’s blood may cause a second or
third born baby to Jaundice (blue babies) e.g. when a rhesus negative woman marries rhesus
positive man the baby is likely to be rhesus positive hence his blood and that of the mother is
likely to be in compatible. The mother’s blood produces antibodies that fight the baby’s
white cells leading to premature birth or still birth

B). Environment during birth (Perinatal)

i) Method of delivery- some methods make the baby experience problems in making its first
breadth. This may cause brain damage due to shortage of oxygen (anoxia). The various
methods of delivery include
 Breach- Baby’s legs or buttocks emerge first.

10
  Transverse- Baby’s body lies across the uterus
 Instrumentation (forceps)- Baby is too large to pass through the normal birth canal.
Instruments must be used to widen the passage.
 Caesarian section- Baby is removed through an incision in the mothers abdomen and
uterus. The maximum number of children a mother can have through caesarian is 4.
 Precipitate- Where the birth process is very fast. There is no need of instruments or
hospitalization.
 Normal or spontaneous delivery is where the baby’s head emerges first before the
rest of the body.
ii) Length of labour.
Prolonged labour may cause suffocation or damage to brain tissues which are still
very delicate.
iii) Induced labour
This happens when the baby goes beyond 40weeks or when the mother’s life is at
risk.
iv)Quality of the physical environment where the child is born eg hygienic standards of both
the mother and the health facility.

C) Environment after Birth

 Food and nutrition- poor diet especially in the first 5 years affect the central nervous
system. This in turn affects physical and mental development.
 Childhood Diseases such as polio, measles and Tuberculosis affect children and may
permanently deform them.
 Accidents- and traumatic experiences- Accidents can impact on the child physically.
children may be involved in accidents as they play and can affect their growth and
development
 Medical care and protection against extreme temperatures and other dangers.
 Environmental factors-eg space, exercise and bonding. Children prefer spacious
places where they can play compared to small areas.
 Child rearing practices- This includes emotional stress and the degree of affection.
Lack of affection results in deprivation dwarfism or Failure to thrive syndrome.
 Family socio economic status
 Cultural and religious beliefs
 Health of the child. Sickly children grow up slowly compared to healthy children.
 Quality of peer group relationship

Educational Implications of the Principles of Human Growth and Development

An understanding of the principles and determinants of growth and development helps us in
several ways
1. It helps us to know what to expect of the individual’s capability at a particular
age.
2. It gives information on when to provide opportunities and stimulation for optimal
development.
3. It helps to parents, teachers and others who work with children, to prepare them for the
physical and psychological changes that are to take place.

11
4. It helps us to be prepared for changes in our bodies and personalities as we grow older.
5. It helps us to understand that it is possible to facilitate the process of development by
providing an enriched environment.
6. It helps understands individuals differences that arise at all stages of human growth and
development.
7. Helps teachers to understand what can be expected in terms of proper growth and
development.
8. The teacher is able to plan learning process and arrange suitable learning experience in
terms of teaching aids and methodology.
9. Helps us understand human behavior at different stages of development so as to be able to
predict it..

:
Summary

Development refers to the process by which the individual grows and changes
during its life-span, from conception to death.
Development is systematic, orderly, progressive, multi-dimensional, multidirectional,
plastic and contextual.
The major domains of development are physical, cognitive and socio-emotional.
Stages of development can be categorised for the sake of convenience, ranging from
prenatal stage to late adulthood or old age.
Each stage is characterized by certain developmental tasks which are social
expectations for a given age group.
Hereditary factors are determined at the time of conception and genetic information is
carried by genes and chromosomes.
Genotypes refer to the characteristics which are carried genetically but not displayed.
Phenotypes refer to those characteristics which are displayed.
Environmental factors influence both prenatal and post-natal development.
External harmful agents can cause damage to the fetus in the mother’s womb.
Maternal disease, nutrition and stress can influence fetal development.
The ecological systems theory proposes several sub-systems in the growing child’s
environment which can influence development.
Both nature and nurture jointly influence development.

a) Oral stage 0-2 years

The child derives pleasure through the mouth. The child has a
tendency of putting objects in the mouth. If the individual fixates at
this stage, he displays the following characteristics in adulthood.
 Pessimism
 Excessive drinking and smoking
 Abusive
 Excessive kissing
Individuals who did not fixate are

12
  Optimistic
 Trustworthy
b) Anal stage 2-3 years
The anal region becomes a source of pleasure especially when the
training empties the bowel. Toilet training is introduced at this
stage. If toilet training is strict, during adulthood the individual
becomes a miser.
 Obsessed with orderliness and neatness
 Perfectionist tendencies
 Very stingy
Where there was no training, the individual becomes overgenerous
c) Phallic stage 4-6 years
During this stage a boy develops unconscious sexual desire for his
mother until he imagines that the father might castrate him hence
develops a conflict called Oedipus complex. The girl develops
unconscious desire for her father. She imagines that she is a rival of
the mother over her fathers. This leads to electra complex or
conflict. The boy that fixates at this stage is likely to become a
homosexual whereas a girl becomes lesbian.
d) Latency stage 6-8 years
Boys identify with their father as girls identify with their mother.
e) Genital stage 8 years
The individual develops heterosexual.
10. The study helps us to control human or learner’s behaviors
according to Maslows hierarchy of needs.

 Physiological needs ought to be satisfied before psychological

needs are met.
 In the school environment physiological needs may include;
adequate nutrition, water and proper ventilation.
 Security may include; well (structure) constructed building,
fencing.
 Physiological security is necessary i.e learner should not be
embarrassed by teacher.
 The teacher aught to master learners names in order to instill a
sense of love and belonging.
Esteem needs
A teacher should allow learners to participate in leadership roles,
give recognition to those who do well, distribute questions in
class based on ‘blooms taxonomy”ie a. Knowledge –ability to
recall facts
b. Comprehension –ability to retell a story or given
information in own words.
c. Application –ability to use newly learnt facts in novel
situations.
d. Analysis –ability to break down material from
component parts e.g. narrating a story based on a series
of pictures.
e. Synthesis -
f. Evaluation –ability to judge the value or worth of a given
piece of information.

13
Self actualization
Students should be helped to develop their potentials and talents
fully by encouraging them to engage in co-curricular activities.
6. The study enables people to understand the mechanism of
cognition as outlined by Jean Piaget. He came up with various
stages of cognitive development.
 Sensory motor
 Pre-operational
 Concrete –operational
 Formal –operational
The stages are innovative since higher depend on lower for
development.
g. It helps us to understand the mechanism of cognition.
This is in with jean piaget’s cognitive theory.
-Sensory motor- (0-2yrs)-Child manipulates objects through the
use of senses
-pre-operational stage (2-7) yrs-Language appears, engage in
imaginative play the child is egocentric and think that all things
have life eg tables and walls.
-Concrete operational (7-11yrs)- Child performs simple operations
with physical objects,uses simple objects to arrive at conclusions,
reasons deductively etc.
-Formal operational (11-above)- reasons abstractly, employs
logical thought, solves problems through reasoning etc.
7. It helps in assigning duties and responsibilities to different
children eg Group leaders, Prefects etc
8. It helps in designing curriculum according to various levels ie
different concepts are taught at different age levels.
9. It helps learners understand the level of concentration. This
assists in allocation of time per lesson.
10. Enables a teacher dismiss the misconceptions and myths
about children’s growth and development
1. 11. An understanding of growth and development makes
guidance meaningful and effective.

 .

TOPIC 2: HUMAN FORMATION, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Spermatozoa
 Greek meaning seed/living being.
 The Y gene in male sperm has small head and lighter
compared to X gene in female sperm with larger head and
heavy. Thus the Y sperm swims faster, therefore stands
higher chances to fertilize the egg, but is not always the case;
 Lactic acid present in the Vagina may inhibit Y more than X
sperm, although the sperm has a life cycle of 48 hours in the

14
 female reproductive tract, but the male sperm may survive for
about 6 hours.

 After 270 days (40 weeks) the child is born.

 Meiosis – division/duplication of ordinary body cells.

Sex determination
 The 23rd chromosomes of the female and male cells contain
the sex and sex – related traits.
 Normally the male gamete has XY chromosomes while the
female has XX.
 Fusion between male X and female X chromosomes result into
a female offspring while fusion between male Y and female X
result in a male offspring.
 It is therefore the man who determines the sex of the baby
although he may have not control over it.
 Occasionally, the female may procedure two ripe ova and if
these are fertilized by two separate sperms, they develop into
fraternal twin (none identical twins).
 On the other hand, if a fertilized ovum splits into two cells that
develop independently, the resultant offspring are identical
twins.
 A study conducted by MacMillan (1971) and Stern (1973)
found that the chance XY and XX is in the ratio 60:40 i.e. for
every 150 males conceived, there are 100 females.
 However, males are miscarried more often during the 1 st
trimester (first 3 months) such that at birth there are 106
male babies to 100 females. Why the difference?
1. The Y chromosome swims after faster because it is
smaller and lighter unlike the X chromosome which is
larger and heavier.
2. The Y chromosome is more resistant to adverse bio-
chemical conditions present in the intra – uterine
environment.

NB: Couples may conceive the desired sex by altering the bio –
chemical conditions of the women’s productive tract. Less acidic
environment (alkaline) favours the conception of male babies.

Ways of increasing chances of male sperm fertilization

 Need for abstinence to increase male sperm count.
 Timing of ovulation – in normal menstruation cycle of 28 days,
ovulation takes place on the 14 th -+ 2 days. To get a male
offspring copulation should take place on the 14 th day but not
earlier or later.
 Regulate the lactic acid by washing the vaginal tract.
 Apply deep penetration particularly during ejaculation.

15
PRE – NATAL DEVELOPMENT
 It is the development of the baby in the mother’s womb from
conception to birth. Pre-natal development starts with
fertilization. Life begins at conception when the female Ovum
fuses with the male sperm after successful coitus (successful
sexual intercourse).
For fertilization to occur-:
 ovulation has to take place whereby the ovum is released
from the ovary of a female
 The ovum has to be deposited in the oviduct
 The first sperm to hit the ovum penetrates and its nucleaus
fuse with that of the ovum.
 After fusion penetration of other sperm cells is inhibited.
 The fusion of sperm and ovum cell results into a compound
cell referred to as a Zygote which develops to a human being.
 The Zygote grows in size through multiplication of cells
through a process referred to as Mitosis. The two cells (sperm
and ovum), normally called gametes, fuse into a single cell
called zygote.
 After three weeks of conception, the Zygote develops into the
embryo.
 Each of the gametes has 23 chromosomes giving rise to 46
chromosomes that make up the zygote.
 Consequently, a process of cell division called mitosis
(multiplication of cells) starts. The dividing cells get
embedded on the uterine wall – a process called implantation.
 Finger – like projections develop around the developing
cluster and the liquid filled sac (amniotic bag) enables the
child to float.
 After 4 weeks, the finger – like projections interact with the
cells of the uterus to form the placenta and umbilical cord.

 Other organs develop eg umbilical cord, placenta, and the
amniotic fluid.
 In the third month, the embryo develops into a foetus.
 The organs start functioning. The child engages in the motor
behaviour.
 In the firth month there is appearance of hair and sweat
glands.
 In the sixth month the eyes are well developed and reflex
actions eg grasping, blinking are at work.
 If born prematurely the child can survive. At 8 months the
foetus is 4cm and over 2kg. Around 9 months the foetus is 3.5
kgs and above.

SIGNS OF PREGNACY
 Discontinuation of monthly period
 Morning sickness
 Enlargement of the breast
 Releasing of the bladder more frequently
 Enlargement of the stomach

16
 Movement of the fetus
THE PROCESS OF TWIN FORMATION
 If the two ova are fertilized by different sperm cell they develop
independently to form fraternal twins.
 If the ovum that has been fertilized splits into two cell then
develop independently the resulting offspring are identical twins.
Types of delivery
 Vaginal delivery
 Caesarean
THE BIRTH PROCESS
It comprises of 3 signs.
 Occasional contraction of the womb/ onset of labour
 Discharge of bloody mucus
 Discharge of the amniotic fluid

LABOUR
Comprises of the following stages-:
 The mother experiences lighting as the foetus turns upside down
to face the birth canal.
 There is expulsion of the body from the womb where the mother
is to push. There is expulsion of the placenta umbilical cord and
amniotic membrane after birth. The new born is called a menate
for the first 7 days should be 3-5 kgs. Research indicates that
more boys than girls are delivered but the boys have more
abnormalities than girls hence many of them tend to die before
2nd birth day.
 The neonates infants display various reflexing behaviors e.g.
blinking, knee jerks, sucking.
 The baby is able to fight various diseases through the following
ways:
1. By nature means
2. Through immunity from the mother breasts.
3. Through artificial source of immunization

TOPIC 3
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
Are biological changes in the physical structures and sizes of the
body. Normal growth in height is governed by the secretion of a
growth hormone from the thyroid gland. When the secretion is
normal growth but when the secretion is in excess, then a giant
develops. Changes in bone, muscles and fat, leads to a gain in
height. According to Sheldon, there are three body types.
1. Endomorphs (short oral round fellows)
2. Ectomorphs (slender, bony, tall fellows)
3. Mesomorphs (heavy tall) authoritative and feel in militant

17
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Ability of individual to exercise proper control over his bodily
movements through the co-ordination activity of the nerves centre
and the muscles.
It involves a) locomotion- Refers to body movement and control
b)pretension-involves reaching out for some activities eg grasping,
picking etc

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VARIATION IN MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT
1) Heredity- This include the rate of physical maturation and the
body type
2) Nutrition (level)- well fed babies start moving early
3) Cultural patterns of infant care- Rural babies compared to
urban children
4) The gender difference- girls walk faster than boys
5) State of health of the baby
6) Learning through exercises
Research indicates that African children develop faster than
American children.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR DEEVELOPMENT

--There is consistency in the sequence in which the skill develop e.g.
a child who walked earlier is likely to run fast.
-Stages of development are sequential and observable
-Can be enhanced through encouragement of specific body
exercises, provision of adequate rest, provision of unrestricted
movement in the houses, through learning and improved medical
care.

GENETIC DISORDER (CONGENITAL DISORDERS)

There are deformities, diseases, defects that are either present at
birth or inherited from parents or manifest, divided into-:
1. GENETIC DISORDER
Are sex linked genes disorder or recessive and dominant genes
disorders eg phenylektonuria (PKL). It is a metabolic disorder that
results into mental retardation it is caused by:-
 Recessive gene that is responsible for breaking down of chemical
l referred to as phenylalanine.
 This results to accumulation of the chemical in the blood leading
to severe brain damage.
 It affects the motor-coordination, leads microcephaly,
hydrocephaly, it affects the vision, wide set eyes, protruding
tongue e.t.c.
2. CHROMOSOMAL ABBRERATIONS.
a) Dawn’s syndrome (trysomy 21)
It results from an extra 2 chromosome which leads to a total of 47
chromosomes instead of 46.
Characteristics

18
Heavy and heart problems, folded eye led myopic conditions,
protruding tongue, small and irregular disquieting eyes, infertility.
b) Trysomy 18
Results when the 18 chromosome pairs resulting into 3
chromosomes during meosis.
Characteristics
M. retardatory, low IQ, heart disease, facial abnormalities deformed
fingers and teeth.
c) Turners syndrome 38 XO lack missing one X chromosome,
common in
females and characterized by short stature M. retardatory visual
and
perceptual.
d) Klinefelter’s syndrome in males, have extra X chromosomes XXY,
late speed,
XXY
delayed low verbal IQ.

PLAY
It is a sympontenous activity in which individuals engage
themselves to the life pleasure.
STAGES OF PLAY
1. Simple motor activities.-The child explores the environment
e.g. feeling, sucking and touching.
2. Independent/solitary-Child plays alone with toys
3) Parallel play-The individual starts to accommodate other e.g.
skipping, hide and seek.
4 socialized play
Play becomes complex with rules that have to be followed, therefore
the content of play involves fiction, function and reception.

IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN PROMOTING CHILD GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT.
Play has a wealth of value for young children. As children play they
learn new things and also develop their, social, language and
physical abilities.
Play therefore helps in

i. Intellectual/ mental Development

 Play helps children to concentrate, explore reason and

organize their thinking. Children learn to solve problems and
make decisions as they play. Children acquire more concepts
and ideas about space, objects, relationships and time as they
play. It helps them to acquire new knowledge and skills of the
environment. It helps them to understand themselves and the
environment better. Play enhances learning skills

ii. Social development

 Play provides excellent opportunities for children to learn to

live harmoniously with others, and also experience a sense of

19
 achievement which boosts their self-esteem. Children learn to
share materials, take turns, cooperate with others, listen to
others and to respect what others do. Children develop
empathy and concern for others as they play. Children learn
negotiation skills and how to solve problems. Leaders emerge
to decide the role-play to be done. These leaders assign role
to other children. They also tell them what to do. It is a good
opportunity for training for those being led as they learn to
obey rules

These are very important social skills, which prepare children for a
better life in other levels of schooling and in later life in society
iii. Emotional development

 Children develop positive self-image as they play. They

develop skills and abilities that make them feel good about
themselves. Play provides opportunities for children to
express their emotions of joy, anger, frustrations, guilt,
insecurity and anxiety. If you watch a young child playing you
will be able to identify emotions she expresses.

 Play helps children to acquire knowledge, skills and positive

attitudes about adult roles

 Therefore, it is important that allow children to express their

emotions during play as this helps to demonstrate what they
feel. As children grow older they need to be trained on how to
express these same emotions in socially acceptable way in
order to maintain good social relations.

iv. physical Development

 play is important for the development of strong and healthy

bodies
 Children acquire muscle strength and also learn to control and
co-ordinate their bodies through play.

 Children learn to use their bodies to express themselves and

to communicate with others through body movements

 Children also learn to use of their senses

 Children learn to observe, talk about, investigate and

experiment through the use of their hands, eyes, ears, nose,
mouth and other parts of the body.

 They learn by touching, smelling, observing, discovering,

imitating, identifying, exploring describing and experiencing.

By so doing they learn to understand things and the world better.

v. Language Development

 Children develop a lot of vocabulary. They learn to

communicate with others, to listen and express themselves

20
 during play. This is because they talk as they play even when
alone

vi. Aesthetic Development

 Children learn to enjoy and have fun. Develop their talents.

Adults can use this opportunity to nurture talents of children.
Children also develop leadership skills and ability to lead

vii. Understanding adult roles

 Role-playing is one of the most frequent plays for young children.

They like to play adult roles. They act ‘mother’ ‘father’ etc .As
they engage in their role-plays they do what the person they are
imitating does. Engaging in these role-plays helps children to
start to understand and appreciate adult roles better.

viii. Knowledge and appreciation of self

 As children play, they learn what they are able to do and what
they cannot do. They also compare themselves with others
which helps them to understand their potentials even better.
Understanding of self is important for development of self
identity, self-esteem and confidence

ix. Knowledge and appreciate of culture

 Through indigenous and traditional toys, other They acquire

values, beliefs and attitudes that are associated with culture
and way of life of their people.

PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT/ DISABILITIES.

This refers to inability to move normally and exercise
proper bodily movement. They are classified into:
a) Orthopedic disabilities-, it includes amputations, Club foot and
dislocation of the hips
b) Neurological disabilities e.g spina- bifida- lack of sensations in the
lower part of the body, Cerebral palsy –abnormalities in the brain

Cause of physical impairedness

Diseases eg polio, measles, rickets etc
Accidents
Brain damage
Problems that affect physically impaired people
 Unable to manipulate objects or draw
 Mentally retarded
 Additional handicapped
 Experience psycho-social maladjustment.
How to identify them
 Physical examination after birth.

21
  Through constant observation by their care givers as they
grow
 Developmental screening
Intervention measures
This includes
[Link] intervention which include immunization of children,
Primary health care and Improved nutrition
2. Physio- therapy –This involves going through exercises designed
to reduce pain and also minimize muscular deformities
3. Occupational therapy –This ensures proper movement of the
hand, legs or head.
4. Speech therapy - Improve on his or her communication abilities
eg use of gestures, writing down what they want
5. Self care skills- This is where children are helped to live an
independent life later on eg ability to feed themselves, washing,
bathing etc
6. Barrier free access – The buildings should be accessible to the
physically challenged. Construct ramps on storied buildings
7. Adaptive and assistive services e.g special scissors, book turners,
brails, wheel chairs etc

VISUALLY IMPAIRED
Individual that is all inclusive and embraces the totally blind and
partially sighted.
Identification.
 Appearance of their eyes is swolen, red,or watery eyes.
 Cases of rubbing of the eyes
 Blinding of the eyes
 Holding books closer to their eyes
 Eye aching or itching complaints
 Double vision.
TYPES
1. Totally blind
Individuals who are unable to identify the source of light.
 Unable to read
 May use brails
2. Partially blind
 Individuals having low vision.

Causes of Visual impairments

 Hereditary e,g cataracts or albinism
 Infectious diseases e.g German measles
 Accidents/ injuries
 Tumors in the eye
 Other prenatal influences e.g expectant mothers smoking
 Venereal diseases like gonorrhea and syphilis
 Poisoning
Examples of visual impairments
1. Colobama

22
  Associated with incomplete formation of the peripheral areas
of the retina.
2. Glaucoma
 Excess pressure especially in the eye balls.
3Albinism- This is a hereditary condition caused by absence of
pigmentation of the iris
4. Refractive errors eg myopia ( short sighted people)
5. Cataracts- presence of crystalline lens
Effects of visual impairment
1. Restricted concept development e.g language.
2. Affects motor development of the individual
3. Behaviour problems e.g blindism
4. Low intelligence level.
5. Educational adaptation that are put in place
Interventions
1. Learning materials given e.g brails i.e computers and printers.
2. Attend special schools so that they are expose to specialized
services.
3. Attend regular school
4. Taught by experienced and qualified teacher who have skills in
sensory stimulation and sensory skills.
5. They should be taught right from infancy in order to develop self
confidence.
6. Presented with concrete objects that can be
manipulated/touched.

HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Individuals that are deaf or hard of hearing. we measure
hearing intensity and sensitivity through units which are
referred to as decibels
 A deaf person is one that is unable to successfully process any
singlestick formation but a hard of hearing person generally
uses a hearing aid to enable him in the linguistic formation
 Identification of hearing
 Painful aching
 Discomfort in ears ringing ears discharge
 Request for repetition
 Poor articulation of sounds e.g. talk coldly
 Reluctance to participate in all discussion
Causes of hearing impairment
a. Heredity 20 – 50% due to heredity stems with sex linked
genes responsible for that majority are men
b. Diseases e.g. meningitis, maternal rubella prematurely
damages the ear
c. Rhesus incompatibility
d. Atitis media – a condition associated with infection that cause
accumulation of the fluids in the middle of the ear
e. Accidents pealing of the expectant mother causes hearing
impairment
Types of hearing impairment

23
 1) Conductive bearing loss – the outer and middle ear region are
interfered with waxes that affect sound passage.
2) Sensory neuron hearing loss inner ear affected hence
interfered with the conduction of sound
3) Mixed hearing loss- occurs when both middle and inner ear
are affected simultaneously
Intervention to strategies
- Emphasis auditory training
- Hearing aid pranced to hearing impaired people
- Emphasis in speech reading or lip reaching
- Introduce to sign language/ finger spellings
- Taken to special schools or integrated school set – up.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotions are outward expressions of the inner feelings e.g anger,
Joy, Pleasure Audience, Fear, Jealousy, Confidence, Self image,
Excitement etc. It is a feeling about a person or an event. According
to Mourns (1979) emotions are complex effective experiences that
involves diffuse psychological changes and can be expressed overtly
in characteristic behavior patterns.
The issue of emotions exists from birth to old age. Emotions are
physiological and behavioral responses caused by hormonal
secretions; they can be positive or negative. This is because they
are a product of perception e.g when you perceive a dangerous
animal/person, you can develop fear and run away.

Functions of Emotions.
 They perform an adaptive function i.e emotions ensure
survival of organisms. If a child sports a wild dog, she will run
away.
 It also acts as a means of communication eg a person who is
unhappy will cry or become abusive.
 It promotes social relationships. Emotions such as
love/affection enhance social bonds and attachment.
 Emotions offer a motivating function. Students who fear
exams are motivated by anxiety to read frequently in fear of
failing exams.
 Provides direction towards goal achievement.
 Source of pleasure or pain e.g if happy, laugh cry, pain.

components of emotions
1. Feelings- negative or positive
2. Behavioural responses e.g among children temper tantrums,
crying.
3. Physiological arousal –sweating shivering or trembling of muscles
4. Environmental stimulus-student or individual encounters a
threatening stimulus like a lion will tremble and run away.

physiological and body changes that accompany emotions.

24
The internal structure and functioning of our body is influenced and
affected by emotional experiences. This may include
 Increase in heart beat due to agitation or excitement.
 Increase in blood circulation.
 Increase in respiration and breathing due to fear or
excitement.
 Digestion problems caused by secretion of hormones.
 Changes in chemical composition of the blood eg sugar level
goes up.
 Changes within the muscles eg some muscles do harden.
 Malfunctioning of the brain eg memory lapse.

Implications of emotions on education

- Teachers should not punish an individual that has expressed
poor emotions but assist.
- There’s need to guide and counsel on a continuous basis in
order to express the healthy emotions.
- Teachers should be role models and a companion for
maintaining proper emotional bonds

Theories of emotional development

1. W. James and Lange Theory
Compounded by William James and Carl Lange, according to
emotions spring from physiological reactions. The perception of the
stimulus causes the individual’s body to undergo physiological
changes and also experience emotions eg when one sports a snake,
the person gets frightehed and run away. i.e the emotions reaction
accompanies physiological behavior.

2. Walter Cannon and Bard Theory

The lower brain centres are responsible for instilling emotional
reactions. As an individual encounters a stimuli, impulses reach the
thalamatic –hypothelamatic regions that transfer information to the
cerebral cortex.
Once the information gets to the celebral cortex physiological
changes occurs e.g individual starts sweating or trembling.

3. Schachter Singer
Sometimes called the cognitive theory of emotion. It suggests that
our physical arousal together with our perception and judgement of
a situation jointly determine our emotions. Situations based on
previous reactions determine emotions thus the cognitive element
of our behavior is in the form of our previous knowledge and
interpretation of the previous situation. Eg if a thief stole and
nothing was done, he will go ahead and steal again. Therefore,
interpretation of a given stimuli influence behaviour.
4. Windsley Activation Theory
It states that emotion represents a highlighted arousal within the
individual. The degree of emotions depends on rate arousal

25
Emotion provoking stimuli activates the reticular activating system
in the brain area which in turn sends impulse both upwards towards
the cortex and downwards towards the muscles.

Characteristics of emotions
1. Instinct e.g parental love is natural without inborn reason way of
behaviour reason or training love, depression.
2. Perception of a particular stimuli e.g react on situation according
to law they perceived them.
3. Feeling e.g negative or positive feelings.
4. Physiological changes in an individual
5. Physiological changes e.g anxiety, depression.

Factors that influence emotional development

1. Maturation
Children display their emotion differently from adults.
2. Environment
Healthy environment leads to desirable emotions
3. Level of thinking/state of mind,- low IQ display low and negative
emotions than high IQ
4. Individuals language and level of communication skills i.e
children cry because they are unable to communicate.
5. Socialization level
Socialization cultures e.g in some cultures some are told to keep
quiet in some cases some religion.

Conditions contributing to emotional dominance or stability

1. Individual health
 Good health encourages dominance of pleasant emotions e.g
healthy eating habits.
2. Home climate
 Democratic climate promotes positive emotions. Children are
pleasant and jovial. Undemocratic promotes jealousy
3. Relationship with peers
 If well accepted by peers, they develops positive emotions
4. Parental expectations
 High and unrealistic expectation from parents makes the child
become ashamed and embarrassed if they falls below those
expectations.
6. Guidance and counseling

Categories of individuals based on emotions

1. Emotionally mature people
Above adolescent stage and are able to display effective control of
their emotions, they exercise emotions at the right time and place
perceive thing in their real perceptive. They sometimes exercise
high intellectual power i.e thinking or acting.
They don’t over use habits of rationalization e.g student failing
exam blame himself. These individuals are not anti-social i.e they
possess high levels of self conscience and self respect.

26
2. Emotionally Disturbed fellows
 Unable to maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationship with
others.
 Display a perfective mood of unhappiness or depression and
they engage in frequent destructive behaviours.
 Note: emotional problems are caused by generally poor
healthy irritating conditions, chronic disturbance poor
intellectual development anxiety e.t.c.
Effects of emotional problems
 Poor academic performance or duty
 Mental retardation
 Psychosocial maladjustment e.g depression, withdrawal cases
of schizophrenia (mental disturbances, hallucination-
imaginations illusions –false beliefs).
 Cases of psychopath (disorder individual beliefs that he is
poor coz of others thus engages in massive killing. Manic
depression doing opposite of what others are doing.
Identification of emotionally disturbed people
 Observation
 Psychiatric psychological evaluation
 Interviewing his close friends
Prevention of emotional problems
1. Medical intervention – apply depressants for the aggressive ,
stimulants for those who are extremely withdrawn.
2. Behavior modification-strategy-Learn to reward and punish
children who are unruly appropriately.
3. Use of structured classrooms-should be properly arranged
while avoiding destructing stimuli by having sound treating
walls and ceilings. provide a predictive routine.
4. Foster a non-threatening environment eg avoid use of corporal
punishment.
5. Provide special education for emotionally disturbed children
eg approved schools.
6. Individuals should also learn how two express their emotions
through
Participation in co-curricular activities
Learning to develop senses of humors
Learn to share problems with others/
friends

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Morality is a social variable which involves exercising of self-control
and consideration of others. It is the ability to distinguish between
good and bad.
Morals are accepted behavior standards by a group of people within
a certain social context. It refers to the ability of an individual
possessing a sense of right and wrong behaviours with respect to
the society’s code of ethics. It concerns rules about what people
should do in their interactions with others. It refers to the acquisition

27
 of values, norms beliefs andunderstanding of culture of the society.
Behavior standards vary from group to group e.g. in Christian laws,
certain denominations have prescribed behavior standards e.g.
protestants have to abide by certain behaviors. Smoking and
drinking a little in accepted in Catholic Church. Here morals are
relate rather than absolute i.e not universally accepted.
Components or constituents of morality
These are Societal values, norms, beliefs and customs. Individuals who
adhere to these are socially accepted. Those who deviate are
perceived as social misfits ( not accepted). Consequences for non-
conforming include being punished or reprimanded by society

Factors influencing moral development among children

 Families influence its members by passing values to the new

or young members who join them. (Value transmission). As a
result of this, families and larger units function effectively.

 Influence of Peer groups e.g peers have same norms. Each

member is supposed to conform to those peer norms. If not so
the individual is threatened.
 Influence of Church –there are set of rules based on biblical
standards e.g. Protestants consider taking of alcohol as wrong.
 Youth organizations- scouts, girl guides, CU, SDA, CSA have
set rules and regulations that guide members behavior.
 Mass-media e.g. TV, Radio-individuals would like to imitate
and practice what they see on TV. They do not question what
is displayed on TV.
 Guilt and Shame play an important role in the individual’s moral
developments

Jerome korgan(1991)observed that soon before 2nd birthday,

children begin to acquire concept of right and wrong e.g. a small
child looks at a torn curtain and utters “broke” meaning there is a
tear on the curtain.(knowledge of disapproval). Here the concept of
right and wrong has developed. Parents and Teachers use various
methods to shape individuals behavior.

HOW IS MORALITY LEARNT

1) Rules and regulations

Prescribed patterns for conduct and they have an
educational value and also prevent the recurrence of
undesirable behavior. In Kenyan schools, there are rules
and regulations which govern the lives of learners. The
rules should be rational and corrective.

2) Punishment

28
Means to impose a penalty on a person for a fault, offence or
violation in rules. This is given to prevent recurrence of the
unwanted behavior

Functions of punishment
a) offers a restrictive function e.g. interdiction, sucking or
suspension
b) offers an educational value.

For punishment be effective, it must have the following

characteristics :
i) It must be suited to the Mistake
ii) Consistent- if it is uprooting of a stump it should be uniform
to all who commit that crime
iii) Constructive so as to motivate socially approved behavior in
future.
iv) It must contribute towards building the individual
conscience.
v) It must not humiliate the individual.

3). Rewards
are any form of appreciation for attainment: they have an
education value as they motivate the individual to practice or
repeat socially approved behaviour. They rein force socially
approved behaviour eg praises, approval or material rewards,
Recognition e.g. calling students by name, Gifts or tangible
things, Social approval e.g. good, excellent and Special treats
e.g. outing
4). Provision of guidance and counseling services-
Give learners ideas of how to manage themselves and relate with
others well. Invite guest speakers to address different issues in real
life situations.
5)..Leadership roles.
Students should be given opportunities to experience leadership
roles as prefects. They should be allowed to elect their own leaders
in school.
6..Participation in co-curricular activities-
This aims at tapping the potentials, talents and abilities of the
learners, promote physical and mental health, and to use up the
excess energy.
7).Teaching subjects-
The teaching of subjects such as religious education, and life skills
enable learners to acquire the expected moral values.

[Link] and parents should act as immediate role models for

Children to emulate.

9. Students behavior and welfare should be a collective

responsibility of both parents and teachers.

THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

29
 1. JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY.
2. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Jean piaget was a swiss psychologist who proposed the theory of
moral development in the 1930’s. The theory was based on stages
that children pass through at certain approximate ages. He
concluded that the moral development in children is related to their
intellectual development. He suggested the following stages
1. The stage of Egocentricity (pre-moral judgment)
This is the first stage of moral development in children. It lasts
from birth to about 2yrs of age. In this stage, children do not
simply understand the concept of rules and the idea of
morality. They see themselves as right and want to be favored
in all circumstances e.g when playing with other children, they
refuse to give back toys that don’t belong to them.

2. Moral Realism (2-10yrs)

In this stage, children develop the first concepts of right and
wrong based entirely on what his/her parents permit and
forbid. They show great concern and respect to rules,
resulting from commands handed down by authority figures.
Children obey rules largely because they are told to do so.
This type of morality is called heteronymous morality i.e
morality that is subject to external controls. Children evaluate
wrong doing in terms of its consequences but not intentions of
the wrong doer. At this time, they begin to realize that some
offences are punishable. They therefore work towards doing
what is right to avoid punishment.
3. The stage of Moral Relativism. (10yrs and above)
It’s also called the stage of autonomous morality or morality
of cooperation. It promotes decline of egocentrism. It comes
about as a result of cognitive development and interaction
with peers. The child knows that laws and rules are relative
and they are made by people to facilitate harmony and
successful interaction. This means that the laws and rules can
be changed subject to circumstances. Children get concerned
about the welfare of others. They develop a firm concept of
the necessity that punishment should fit the crime.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL

DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and presented the dilemma
that people go through when faced with situations that require
moral judgments. He defined moral reasoning as the
development of an individual’s sense of justice. He believed
that it is moral reasoning that determines the stage of
development that one is in. Kohlberg came up with three
levels of moral development comprising six stages. The levels
are:

• Pre-conventional level

30
• Conventional level
• Post conventional level
Level I: Pre-conventional (2-7 years)
Children at this level make decisions based on reward and
punishment. They are concerned with the satisfaction of their own
needs. Pre-conventional children may reflect egocentrism assuming
that everyone else sees things the way they do. This level is divided
into 2 stages as follows:
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
In this stage, children have not internalized moral values. They only
obey rules and stick to morals to avoid punishment. They obey
adults because they are told to do so. For example, a child may say
one should not steal because he or she will be punished by the
parents or the parents forbid stealing. They belief right is rewarded
and wrong is punished. Morality practiced here is hedonistic (self
love). It is morality of fear.
Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation/Naive relativist
orientation.
At this stage children start realizing that they have to please others
in order to please themselves. Their moral thinking is based on
rewards and self interest. They obey in order to get rewards.
Without rewards or incentives, they do not obey because they don’t
see the benefits. Children at this stage feel that good act is sold for
a price. It is important for them to resolve peer conflicts to allow
them share their rewards.
Level II: Conventional moral reasoning (10- 18years)
At this stage children start to consider the social standards of the
society which reflects what is right and wrong. Here, children are
mature enough to obey rules and standards of the
community/school. Their behavior is not to avoid punishment or
receive rewards but they realize that rules are theirs and not for
other people.
Stage 3: Good boy/Nice girl orientation
Children at this stage want to do good to help and to please others.
They want to be approved by others. They feel that one should do
what he or she would want others to do to him or her. For example,
they may say it is wrong to steal if you do not want your property to
be [Link] adolescents and adolescents adopt parents and
teachers moral standards in order to be thought of as good girl or
good boy.
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
People at this stage conform to societal rules by considering what is
right or wrong according to society. Moral judgment is based on
social order, justice and law of the society. This stage concedes with
Adolescence. The adolescence observes established order. They
conform to rules and take law as fixed eg secondary school and
college students.
Level 3: Post conventional stage.
This is the highest level of kohlberg’s theory. At this level every
member understands the reason for being moral. Therefore morality
at this level is internalized and not based on other people’s ethical

31
standards of behavior. People know the importance of upholding
moral values.

Stage 5: Legalistic orientation/morality is contract

At this stage, people perceive that moral laws and values can be
modified. These stage concedes with young adulthood. The young
adult believes that there should be flexibility in moral beliefs that
makes it possible to modify and change moral standards. The young
adult operates from a contractional moral orientation e.g one can
enter a contract with a fiancée which can be renewed or not after
the contract period. The contract defines how one will behave and
the consequences of failing to meet the terms of contract.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical principles
People at this stage conform to both standards and to internalized
ideals to avoid self condemnation rather than to avoid social census.
This morality is based on self respect and respect for others rather
than on personal desires. The decisions of an individual are based
on his conscience and the belief in universal principles of respect,
justice and equality. An individual thinks right regardless of legal
restrictions or the opinion of others.

CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED IN PROMOTING MORAL

DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN/LEARNERS.
1. Existence of poor role models.
Learners have a challenge of double standards from some
adults. The behavior of some modern adults does not
measure to the required ethical standards. The slogan of
“do as I say but not as I do” confuses adolescents.
2. Influence of mass media.
The internet, pornographic movies, the televisions etc
expose children to acts of sexual abuse, criminal activities,
bad literature, drug abuse cases etc. Children perceive the
actors in these programs as heroes and heroines and thus
imitate and emulate without considering the
consequences.
3. The breakdown of the traditional social fabric.
In the traditional African society, it was the responsibility of
all adults to ensure moral uprightness among children.
Today, the individualistic attitude has taken toll and each
person for himself and his family. Families have moved out
of the social ties and live independently.
4. The human rights movement.
This has made children rebellious and have little respect for
authority and even their parents. Children of today can
choose to do what they want in the name of rights.
5. Negative peer influence.
Students learn from each other both good and bad habits.
In most cases, they influence one another negatively in the
way they behave e.g dug abuse.

32
 6. Poverty in society leading to cases of stealing/robbery,
prostitution, and child labor among others.
7. Generation gap
Many modern parents fear discussing moral issues with
their children. The adults are perceived by adolescents to
be old fashioned and outdated. This is unlike in the
traditional African system where elders freely discussed
moral issues with the adolescents.

APPPLICATION TO EDUCATION
 Help the students realize that they are responsible for their
actions.
 Give the students opportunities to hear different perspectives
especially in deciding what is right or wrong. Have
discussions, forums, debates, play groups about certain
issues. This will be more meaningful and relevant if the issues
and roles are related to the students’ lives.
 Discuss issues in a multi cultural or global perspective.
Learners should be presented with how certain issues are
tackled in other cultures. Through this, students can widen
their understanding and learn to respect different views and
beliefs since moral values are not-universal.
 Most elementary and secondary school learners are said to be
in the stages 1 and 4 of Kohlberg’s moral development. We
actually use this in maintaining classroom control, behavior
modification and establishing routines inside the classroom by
reinforcing desirable behaviors.
 Teachers should act as models and be examples to the
students. Teachers must show good examples. So teachers
should present values, attitudes and habits worth imitating by
others and other on-lookers.
 Discipline must be used when a child violates the rules and
regulations set by parents, teachers and adults in charge of a
child’s life. Discipline is thus the society’s way of teaching a
child moral behavior approved by the group. The role of
discipline is to mould behavior so that one can conform to the
roles prescribed by a cultural group.
 Socialization and education are key to learning values and
turning them into action and so children’s ability to choose
between right and wrong should be brought about through
these processes. Classrooms atmosphere should be made
democratic; the use of provocative language can be avoided,
discussion of moral dilemmas should be avoided. Provision of
opportunity for learners to engage in helpful behavior should
be encouraged. Teachers should teach social education and
ethics, religious studies, moral storytelling to bring out moral
lessons.
 Learners should be given opportunities to take part in group
activities so that they can learn what is right, to act for the
common good and to avoid doing wrong. This can be
accomplished most successfully by associating pleasant

33
 reactions with what are right and unpleasant reactions with
what is wrong.

-
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language – is a system of communication which uses sound and
gestures to transmit meaningful messages. It is the ability to use
both verbal and non verbal cues to communicate. Language is a
channel of communication among people which gives messages . It
can also be understood as transmission of ideas and feelings by
means of verbal symbols

Properties of language.
- Context – It consists of emotions, feelings, motivations and
actions that accompany the utterance of speech.
- Semantics – constitutes meaning of the said word ie the
speaker must understand what he means when he speaks
- Grammars – This are rules and principles for organizing every
language into meaningful phrases such as phrases ,and
clauses.
- Phonology – This component is made up of sounds
(phonemes) which are produced when one speaks.
- Morphology – made up of words or part of words called
morpheme.
-
Functions of Language
- Leads to satisfaction of the individual needs and feelings
- Enables individuals get attention from others
- It regulates and controls behaviors of other people
- Facilitates meaningful human relations
- Influences thoughts and feelings of other people
- Leads to academic success
- Expression of individuality within the concept of self.
- Can be used to explain imaginations e.g. stories
- Helps in process of association
Factors facilitating learning of language
- Physical readiness of the individual
- Mental readiness of the individual
- Existence of good role models for imitation
- Level of motivation or reinforcement offered to individual
- Existence of proper guidance being offered by role models.

Variations in learning how to speak

This situation could be attributed to;

a) Individual health
Healthy children talks faster / sooner the unhealthy ones
b) Level of intelligence
Low 1 Q are likely to experience impaired speech
c) Economic status

34
Children from higher social economic group talk earlier than those
from low economic group.
d) Gender
Boys lag behind girls in learning to speak.
e) Family size
Children from small size speaks early and better than those from
large or average ordinal position of an individual in family 1 st born
speech is always superior.
f) Parenting Style.
Authorization child training is an obstacle to learning language.
g) Intelligence of multiple births
Children of multiple births normally delay in their development of
speech
h) Individual personality.
Well adjusted children tend to speak better than those poorly
adjusted.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPEMENT

Biological theory by (Chomsky Naomi) the language acquisition
device possessed by the child enable him or her analyzed linguistic
production/ information.
LEARNING THEORIES
a) OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY (B.F. SKINNER)
Language learning by individual is through reinforcement

b) Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)

Children learn language through listening, observing, imitating and
identification of the role models.

c) Functional theories

TYPES OF SPEECH DISORDERS

a) Voice disorder- involves experiencing a defect in the quality of
voice speech and can intensity. Can be caused by hoarseness
and harshness.
b) Articulation disorders
Include substitutions, omission and addition of ones speech. It is the
cause of speaking on ones speech. It is due to inability to direct flow
of air and to shift position of the tongues, jaw and teeth.
c) Timing disorder.
Caused by disability to control the breath inappropriately while
speaking includes- glittering and stammering
LANGUAGE DISORDER
1) No development of verbal language. Include children by the
age of 3years not development language.
2) Interrupted language.
In this situation development is interfered with illness or sickness
Delayed language-a child of around six years uses language that is
appropriate of three years old child.
3) Qualitative impaired language

35
Where language of individuals differs in quality from that of normal
individual effects.
EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE DISORDER AND SPEECH
 Leads to mental retardation/ impairment hence, affecting
individual
Performance of duty or academic performance in class.
 Leads to psychosocial mal- adjustment among individuals as
manifested in cases of withdrawal

How a Teacher can enhance language development

1. Parents and teachers need to be good role models in
articulation and pronunciation of words.
2. Those impaired should be referred to the language
psychologists for assistance.
3. Provide adequate print materials to encourage the emerging
language eg text books, poems, magazines, story books etc..
4. Avoid introduction of too many languages the mastering of
one language is faster.
5. Offer support, understanding and acceptance of individual or
learners with language difficulties.
6. Encourage learners towards self expression by asking them
thought provoking Questions.
7. Encourage storytelling, riddles, drama, debating , symposium
etc in order to enhance fluency.
8. Assign responsibilities in order to instill self confidence and
self expression in them.
9. Encourage group activities where they share, ask Questions
and listen to others
10. Teachers should correct grammatical mistakes
immediately.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Man is a social being with innate drives to associate and socialize
with others. This continue through out our lifespan.
It is a gradual process in which the growing child develops social
skills, feelings, attitudes and behaviors towards him// herself and
other people. It means acquisition of the ability to behave in
accordance to with social expectations. Becoming socialized
involves three processes i.e
a). Learning to behave in socially accepted and approved ways.-
Every social group has its standards of what is approved behavior
and what is not for its members.
b) Playing approved social roles- Every social group has its own
patterns of customary behavior that are carefully defined and
expected of its members eg roles of parents and children and for
teachers and pupils.
c). Development of social attributes- To be socialized, children must
like social activities, norms and beliefs
 Social development emerges as an individual is born i.e. the
significance of others or parent.

36
  Early childhood development entirely depends on social
learning and development

SOCIALISATION
 This is the process by which persons acquire knowledge, skills
and altitude that make them be integrated members of the
society. Therefore individuals undergo the following processes
 Status socialization-An individual is prepared to occupy a
generalized status in the society.
 Role socialization-An individual is prepared for a specific
vocation or function or roles in society.

Agents of Socialization
Family- This is the primary and basic agent of socialization. It
provides basic needs , care, love and protection. It imparts basic life
skills and reinforces community values, norms, behaviors and
beliefs.
School- Has rules and regulations that direct behavior. There exists
peers and teachers upon which children imitate. Schools have
cultures and tradition which enhances .bonding.
Peers- Influences the behavior of each other positively or
negatively. Peers have common grounds in terms of characteristics,
ideas, interests and experiences.

Community- This is the immediate environment outside the home.

It consists of village, town, clan, tribe etc. It imparts values, norms,,
beliefs and customs of the society.
Church- Has values and doctrines that determine appropriate ways
of behaviour and roles which are compatible with values imparted
by other agents of socialization. The church reinforces societal
norms and values. It shapes the character of individuals through
moral and spiritual guidance.
Mass Media- Both print and electronic media.

Social development is fast during early childhood.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TOWARDS SOCIAL ATTRACTION OR

AFFILIATION
1) Existence of similar attributes e.g. if people share the same
gender or age are
bound to be attached together
2) Physical attribute- facial attractiveness and body build influences
people to be
close.
3) Complimentary –opposite attraction e.g. a fat woman being
attracted to a thin
man / woman.
4) Physical proximity- repeated exposure of the same stimulate
increase
Acceptability

37
Discuss the effects of attachment to growth and
development among children

 It facilitates social competence

 Instills confidence in the individual hence boosting his
exploration and curiosity level
 Instills a sense of security in an individual however deprived
attachment may lead to withdrawal, despair or even agitation.
 Instills creativity in an individual.

FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR LAID IN BABYHOOD

a) Attachment behavior-
b) Dependence behavior
c) Acceptance of authority-uniform to significant
d) Bribery
e) Imitation
f) Social co-operation
g) Resistant behaviors e.g. crying
Behavior pattern displayed during early childhood
a. Generosity
b. Desired of social approval expected
c. Empathy and dependence-ant- social behaviour e.g.
aggression bully and teas others
d. Negativism
e. Prejudice dislikes some people
Children gang- spontaneous local group having the socialization
from outside and more social approved

Behavior patterns displayed during puberty

 Antagonistic
 Very aggressive
 Tend to isolate themselves from others
 Engage in day dreaming
This affects their heterosexual relationship with their age – mates

Challenges to effective social development

1) Existence of social deprivation e.g. from socializing with
others this impaits negatively esp. in terms of social learning.
2) Existence of too much social participation which affects the
development of the individuals inner resources
3) Over dependence on others i.e. contributes to personal and
psychosocial maladjusted
4) Over conformity i.e. individual looses direction due to excess
loyalty to the group.

5) Prejudice individuals often become cruel intolerant and rigid.

How a teacher can enhance social development

 Be good role models for children.

38
  Provide many opportunities for practice and experience
in life through storytelling and lessons learnt
 Give them chance to work at own pace due differences
in capabilities.
 Rewards and acknowledge positive behaviour
 Help him built his self esteem and self image by
reducing inferiority complex and social withdrawal.
 Practice love withdrawal and dependence as the child
grows
 Be firm on aggression and temper tantrums and correct
them appropriately.
 Ttrain children in social skills eg learning to wait, taking
turns, saying sorry after making a mistake etc.
 Encourage, praise and reward real achievements and
also acknowledge efforts.

Conformity
A behavior intended to reflect group expectations or social
expectation social expectation defined into terms of development
tasks and learning experiences
Condition leading to variation in social group influences or
conformity accepted
1) Security status of the individual who feels secure in a given
group are bound to be influenced or remain in that group.
2) Acceptability of the individual to the group- those who see the
possibility of gaining group acceptance are influenced more by
the group
3) Personality of the individual joining the group- Those who suffer
feeling of inferiority or inadequate are likely to be influenced by
members of the group?
4) Affiliation nature- Stronger it is the higher the design to be
accepted.
Self concepts
Images people have of themselves believe in term of their physical
social and emotional responses.
6) Self difference 3 -4 years
7) Sex roles role for se
8) Social class differences
9) Social development can be impaired through
1) Ability to develop the understanding of oneself.
2) Misconceptions facility interpretation of different sensory
Can be attributed to
a) Receiving incorrect information
b) Individual experience or exposure
c) Faulty reasoning e.g. poor reasoning
d) Unrealistic thinking e.g. constant exposure to development of
unrealistic thinking confusion
3) Conflicting information that the individual received from others
4) Difficulty in correcting

39
Serious as misconceptions are to the understanding the difficulty in
changing is even greater hazard to individual or personal
development
Categories of social acceptance
1) Star
Everyone in the group claims to be his or her intimate friend
everyone wants to pick him or her
2) Acceptance
Accepted children are liked by many members of the group however
their status is lss secure than that of the star
3) Isolates
Have no friends seen to be [Link] not chosen anyone and have
not been chosen
4) Fringer
Border line of acceptance accepted or not.
5. Climbers
Gain acceptance is one group but want to gain acceptance in a
socially name favoured group.
6. Neglectees
Neither liked nor disliked very shy and withdraws.
Characteristics of leaders in social group
1. High sense of security
2. Better overall appearance as compared 2 others e.g clothing
(cleanliness)
3. Popular among their peers
4. Mature in terms of age
5. Adjusted well in terms of age personality and social level.
6. High level of personal drive
7. Personal warmth
8. Creative

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
o This refers to total organization of the individual’s dynamic
organization within the individual psycho- physical system that
determine his unique adjustment to the environment. Personality
is either public of private.
o Public personality refers to that behavior which others observe
(what is seen by everybody)
o Private personality refers to fantasies and hidden behaviours
known to the person alone..
o It encompasses individuals physical appearance, temperament,
intelligence, moral values and interest of an individual

The psycho-physical systems are influenced by

1) Individuals self concept – The way people perceive themselves..
2) Their trait/quality of behaviour e.g. aggression.
3) Individuality- personality patterns that result from differences in
personality types such as Sanguine (quick and active), Choleric-
individuals that are strong and easily aroused, Melancholic-sad and
pessimistic, Phlegmatic-slow people in life.

40
Determinants of personality
These are classified into two
a) Genetic factors
b) Environmental factors
 Mental abilities-The mentally retarded tend to be dull and
therefore develop unfavorable self concepts.
 Health- which in long run affects their personalities they can be
perceived in terms of malnourishment fatique tined are very
quarrel, some disease e.g chronic diseases irritating physical
environments.
 Temperaments and Emotions also influence personality.
 Unjustified emotional outbursts influences other two judges the
individuals as immature and hence making him to be rude or
uncooperative, success or failure in life.
 The person self concept is influenced by whether he regards
himself as being successful or failure. Success may influence one
to be proud, derive self satisfaction independently cheerful and
happy whereas failures influences one to be unsafe of his
abilities, feelings or depressed.
 Social acceptance of an individual influences him or her to
develop social personality traits e.g being friendly self confidence
and also leadership skills.
 Influence of the school which encompasses the emotional climate
of the class e.g if people are happy and hard working, teachers
playing their role well, discipline they administer is autocratic,
individuals are said be focused, confident, independent with high
respect for authority.
 Democratic –happiness and corporation academic achievement
and fast learners.

PERSISTENCE IN PERSONALITY
This refers to endurance/ recurrence of certain personality traits
and that is why opt observes that personality is the individual
relatively. During and unique organization that is influenced by:
heredity e.g. interest, is passed over from parents.
o Individuals training techniques- training as a method ensure that
the individual remain relatively stable in terms of personality
o Parental values - personality traits that are highly reinforced by
parents tend to be stable over period of time
o Social environment influence e.g. violence, aggression, Christian
etc
o Role play e.g. the role individuals learn to play in the home, it
influence their self concept e.g. directing others development
learning personality

PERSONALITY CHANGE
These are alterations that occur in the individual’s personality
development. These changes are normally occasioned by:
a) Maturation e.g. stable emotions
b) Disturbance in the brain due to Injuries and accidents

41
 c) Drug use and abuse
d) Environmental changes affects individuals
e) Social status and hence power
f) Social pressure, the stronger the drive for conformity
g) Social acceptance the more the individual is likely to develop
personality trait that conform to socially approved patterns
h) Increase in the individual’s competence level due to changes
in the psycho motor skills eg through experience
i) Self concept because of social recognition that increases the
individual competence
j) Increase in the individuals competence
k) Influence of counseling and guidance in the sense that
psychotherapy helps individual develop favourable self
concept as they gain insight into the cause of their un
favourable self concept

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

1) Trait approach by all port
2) Social learning theory/ observation and learning
Albert Bandura
1) Psycho social theory by Eric ERICKSON
2) Phenomenological approach by Maslow
The psychosocial theory by Eric Erickson.
He observed,
The individuals’ personality development is to his interaction with
the society, moreso the care givers e.g. parents.
He came up with stages of personality development.
[Link] TRUST/ MISTRUST 0-2 YEARS
If the individual is nourished handled well and protected, he is
bound to develop a sen a sense of security and a feeling of trust. If
vise versa mistrust develops stressed the importance of warm
relationship depending on how a child gets along the child either
relaxes and fe trusted or is tense and mistrusting of others
2) The period of autonomy vs. shame and doubt 2-4 years
the child starts to explore the environment if he is given the
opportunity to expose the environments through democratic
conditions, then he develops a sense of independence or
autonomy, overprotective, restrictive and harsh parenting styles
may lead to development of shame and doubt (individual tries to
become an individual if sort, even if he is helpless but nonetheless
he is seeking a feeling of being a separate person if denied
develops shame/ doubt and if given a chance develop a feeling of
independence also autonomy.
1) Initiative vs. guilt 4-6 years-Dependent on parents the child
gets confidence to undertake positive actions on his own. Take
control of their environment with limits they take the initiative
to develop behaviuors and rule of the pretend worker e.g.
pretend a police. If there is no opportunity to take the initiative
he develops the feelings of guilt father make up their own rules

42
 on how this work is done. If not allowed the child begins to feel
guilty for having failed.
2) Industry vs. inferiority 6-11years if the initiative is
successful, the individual will produce actions, or engage in
action that develop the attribute of industry.
Develops all kind of skills and get reward for what they have done
children should be encouraged/ to do more hence becoming
industrious if modeled rewards to not forthcoming they feel
inadequate inferior.
Feelings of inferiority develop when a child fears to undertake the
task.
5) Identify vs. Role Confusion (Adolescent 12-20 years)
The key issues that affect the individuals and identified and role
reality.
Therefore role confusion hampers a sense of identity, a stage where
a adolescent want to know who they cove they come up with group
which they identify with and keep them self free from adults or
outsiders where some behaviours strait searching for solutions like
religious, vocational and personal issue, failure to develop a strong
sense of self results in uncertainty about what one is supposed to do
and be her role confusion
6)Intimacy vs. isolation 20-45 years (Young adults)
Young people establish intimate relationships with someone of the
opposite sex. Failure to achieve intimacy leads to feeling of isolation
(starts in adulthood time of permanence of relationship which are
intimate, usually with a member of opposite sex provides feeling of
true satisfaction because you are important to at least one special
person mutual relationship exists without it there is loneliness
(hence isolation).
7) Generativity vs. stagnation 45-65 years
Stage of middle adult hood
The individual is not productive and creative activities e.g a very
effective teacher’s counselor if the individual is not productive at
this stage he stagnates and moves to ego-integrity vs despair.
At this stage somebody should contribute something very important
to the world e.g family job generate or he or she stands still
psychologically and produces nothing thus stagnation.
8) Ego integrity vs. despair 60 and above
An individual has a wide view or perception of himself he
understands what he has done and what he is, thus a sense of
integrity if he regrets in life he develops.
At this stage somebody should accept that end is despair coming
and life has been a worth while event that self ego integrity if he
doesn’t feel this views that life has been meaningless hence being
despair. Integrity completion while despair incompletes.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY BY S. FREUD

LEVEL OF PERSONALITY
a) Conscious Level
 Being aware of what is going on
b) Pre-conscious/sub conscious

43
  A level that block the unconscious experience from
emerging at the conscious level.
c) The Unconscious Level
 Store ideas and experiences that have been repressed.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
 Id
 Ego
 Super Ego
The Id
It is the unsocialised part. It is irrational, illogical and operates on
pleasure principles.
The Ego
Develop through the process of socialization is governed by the
reality principles. It delays on withholds the immediate gratification.
It is abit logical and tolerant.
The Super Ego
It controls both Id and the Ego. It develops as a result of the societal
influence, it s a perfectionist and becomes internalized and forms
part of the individuals and philosophy of life. It is the judicial branch
of personality

The psychosexual stages of personality development

1. He came up with four stages
 Oral stage
 Anal stage
 Phalic stage
 Latency stage
 Genital stage
2. Trait approach theory by Allport and B. Cattel.
 A trait is any characteristic that differs from a person to
another in a relatively permanent aggressiveness introverts
vs extroverts, stability vs. instability.
 The social learning theory by Abert Bandura and R. Walter.
 It comprises on the importance of environment and social
determinants of human behaviour.
 Behaviour is a result of interaction between personal and
environment variables.
3. Phenomenological Approach by Carl Rodger and Abraham Maslow
 That the ones emphasis on the development of self concept in
the development and personality.
4. Interpersonal Theory by Sullivan
 Personality is purely a hypothetical entity. It cannot be isolated
interpersonal situation/interactions.
The relevance of personality to areas of specialization
1. Takes into consideration the individual differences when dealing
with people.
2. Avoid labeling individuals e.g aggressive, depression because it
tends to operate as a self fulfillment prophecy in their likes.
3. Reinforcement is vital in the learning of behaviour in the sense
that there is need give rewards, approval e.t.c.
4. There is need to be good role model for imitation.

44
5. Each individual requires physiological needs before he can
effectively benefit from the psychological need.
6. Individuals should be given freedom of choice in order to
develop a sense of initiative.
7. Individuals should be given more responsibilities for self
evaluation.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognition means receiving, perceiving, producing and utilizing
information. It is concerned with how knowledge is acquired with
reasoning, comprehension, memory, perceptual organization and
problem solving. It changes with age and experience. It involves
development of mental skills which are characterized by changes in
the level of remembering, thinking, memorizing, classifying and
comparing. ,At age 3-6 years, cognitive development is marked by
high level of curiosity and numerous questions that children ask.
This helps them to reason and think about cause and effect of
various situations in life.

 Images referred to schemata mental picture that an individual

forms.
Quiz
Describe the stages of Jean Piagets’ theory of cognitive
development
Explain how a student’s cognitive development can be enhanced.
.

THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Jean piaget
2. Jerome brunner’s

JEAN PIAGET THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

He was a swiss nationalist who claimed that cognition is
central in the thinking of an individual ie man uses his past
experiences to solve problems, thus this should be given
an opportunity to discover through experience and
manipulation.
He noted that the key to cognitive development lies in the individual
constant interaction with his physical and social environment.
(1896-1980) cognition is central to the thinking of an individual i.e
learners should be given chance to discover through experience and
manipulation (practicals) therefore intelligence is a whole system of
the individuals cognitive adaptation to the environment. It involves
two processes.
a) Adaptation
b) Equilibration
Adaptation is carried through the process of assimilation
and accommodation.

45
 Assimilation refers to a kind of merging between the
already existing structures [schemata] and the
environmental needs as they arise.
Accommodation refers to changing a mental skill to include
a new one ie adjusting to new ways of thinking and
behaving in place of assimilating or behaving in the same
old fashion.
Equilibration is the balance that exists between
assimilation and accommodation and this helps the
organism to adjust or maintain a harmonious relationship
between itself and the environment.
Based on this theory, there are 3 factors that influence
cognitive development.
1. Biological factors
Biologically inherited reflexes and mental dispositions
are fundamental to the cognitive structure of an
individual.

2. Maturation
Changes and developments brought about in the
cognitive structure are due to the process of natural
growth.

3. Experience
The changes and developments in the cognitive
structure are brought about by experience that involves
the process of assimilation, adaptation and equilibration.

PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensory motor stage
2. Pre- operational

3. Concrete operational stage

4. Formal operational stage

Sensory motor stage [0-2 years]

It’s characterized by the following;
Manipulates objects through the use of senses. There
is absence of language. They only do understand
their perceptions. The infant lives in the present i.e
what is out of sight is out of mind.
-The infant displays uncoordinated reflexes eg
sucking, grasping etc

Sub- stages of sensory motor stage

a. Reflexive- Reflexes are inbuilt or automatic ways in which
infants respond to situations.
b. Primary circular reactions [1-4 month]- There’s a repetition of
a single action over and over for no reason. Eg sucking
anything or starring at one object.
c. Secondary circular reactions [5-8 month]

46
 The baby repeats an action in order to reproduce interesting
results eg shaking a rattle/ toy to hear the voice, waving the
arm to see it moving.
d. Coordination of secondary circular reactions [8-12 month]
The baby doesn’t repeat an action in order to get simply an
interesting result but to produce a novel end eg pulling a
blanket to uncover a toy.
A skill known as object permanency develops in this stage.
e. Tertiary circular reactions [12-18 months]
The child starts to perform his first experiments by varying his
actions in order to vary the results.

Implications of sensory motor stage

- Provide a variety of materials for children to handle
- There’s need to talk to them to stimulate their language
development.

PRE- OPERATIONAL STAGE [2-7 years]

Here the child begins to replace the right action in form of
sensory or motor exploration with symbols eg a piece of wood
becomes a train.
The child begins to speak.
It’s subdivided into two;

c) Pre-conceptual stage [2-4yrs]

Rudimentary concept formation develops ie the child seems to
identify objects by names and putting them in certain classes
eg all men are daddies and all women are mummies.
Their mode of thinking and reasoning is illogical.
Their thinking is sometimes too imaginative and far removed
from reality. Eg a doll becomes a baby.
The child is egocentric ie sees the world from his/her own
stand point eg the sun and the moon keep on following them
and things should remain the way they are.
They learn sex roles. They are creative and constructive in his
play. Teachers should provide a lot of drawing materials,
correct speech and encourage them to express their feelings.

d) Intuitive stage [4-7yrs]

The child forms various concepts at a more advanced level eg
he will agree that all apples oranges and bananas are fruits
despite their differences in their shapes, colour and taste.
Their thinking is illogical and full of contradictions
They lack too many cognitive skills eg lack reversibility or
conservation in their thinking.
They have a problem of course and effect relationships.
They lack conservation skills

Educational implications
- Teachers should allow them to carry out various activities to
learn actively eg modeling.

47
 - Emphasize on classification and ordering in order to develop
concepts.
- Make use of stories to arouse their interests.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE [7-11YRS]

 The child learns to deal with concepts & ideas that exist only
in mental terms .e.g. can figure out relationships & differences
among things and human beings.
 His thinking is logical & systematic.
 His thinking is flexible & reversible.
 He develops the ability to conserve both in terms of quantity
&number of objects.
 He’s not ego-centric or self centered in thinking.
 He can carry out complex operations.
 He can compare and contrast things and situations.
 Teachers should stress on activity work, e.g. creativity,
experimentations and reasoning.

Formal operation stage.

 The child learns to deal with obstruction biological thinking.
 They are able to construct relationships between concrete
operations.
 There’s generalizations and training of rules by operating in
obstruct terms.
 He explores solutions to problems in a systematic and logical
way e.g. mix colors to come up with the color he wants.
 The thinking is hypothetical.
 He can imagine shapes & figures especially when studying
poetry, algebra or even geometry.
 He discovers solutions to problems through scientific thinking
& problem solving.
 This stage helps the child in attaining mental maturity.

Education implications of Piagets theory

It has enabled us to define & interpret intelligence in a practical
way.
 It has emphasized the importance of drives and
motivation in the field of learning and development.
 It provides valuable information of advice on aim
planning and structuring of the scheme of services.
 It helps teachers to understand the nature of thought
process of children at a particular level of maturation
or chronological age.
 Teachers must emphasize discovery leaning rather
than giving all the information to the learners.
 Emphasis should be put on individualization of
education(child-centered learning)

How to help children improve their mental abilities

48
  Stimulate children’s thinking and spoken language. Talk to
children as frequently as possible and listen to them
 Provide opportunities for children to solve problems by
asking them “why, what and how” questions. Such
questions challenge them to think.
 Encourage children to role-play. This helps them to develop
their memory, imagination, creativity, language and to
express their emotions.
 Teach from known to unknown.
 Provide programmed teaching, demonstration, and
repeated practice.
 Help the children develop the feelings of mastery,
achievement and positive self esteem and the enthusiasm
to learn more.
 Learners should be exposed to a variety of teaching aids in
order to develop an internalized image of concepts
 Teaching Instructions ought to be sequenced basing on the
level of difficulty of the task or content.
 Give children word puzzles to complete. This helps them to
develop creativity . memory. Logical thinking, problem
solving.
 Give assignments that are within the leaner’s abilities
 Teachers should exercise care when teaching abstract
concepts.
 Encourage learners to ask questions and even make
prepositions.

JEROME BRUNNER’S THEORY.

He was an American developmental psychologists. He argues
that anything can be thought to anyone at any given level.
- His theory was based on the bahaviour of infants that displays
a lot of creativity and aesthetics or beauty.
- He has been interested in how we develop the ability to
represent our environment and use this information to
predict the future.
According to Brunner (1966) children pass through 3 stages of
cognitive development as they grow.
1. Enactive stage
2. Iconic stage
3. Symbolic stage
These 3 stages corresponds to piagets first 2 stages . i.e sensory
motor and pre-operation

Enactive mode
This stage is characterized by motor reflexes as reflected in
touching, testing, moving and grasping.
The infant perceives the object in terms of what’s done to it and its
thinking is based on what one does.

49
This stage is also associated with the adolescents or adults
whenever they engage in new motor activity e.g. swimming, playing
piano and finding their way through unfamiliar territory.
Iconic mode:
During this stage, the child’s system of representing information
expands so that objects and experience not only continue to exist in
their absence but form part of his internalized experience.
They are able to form images and pictures of experience.
They can interact with objects that are physically absent but readily
available in his mind. This should encourage them to use their
imagination.
They should be encouraged to participate in developing Teaching-
Learning resources.
Symbolic mode
According to Brunner, it’s the highest form of thinking. The child
represents information on the basis of symbols, ideas, thoughts, or
concepts.
The child has good command of language that enables him express
his thoughts.
He develops problem solving and logical reasoning.
The individual develops cognitions through:
Acquisition of new information from the Environment. It is a
transformation stage whereby the newly acquired information is
manipulated to meet new tasks.
Evaluation stage is whereby the assessment is given to establish
whether the individual has correctly and successfully manipulated
the information.

Educational Implication

Teach children using concrete objects or materials plus action to

enable them to learn effectively.
Instruction ought to be sequenced based on the level of difficulty of
the task.
Learners should be exposed to a variety of teaching aids in order to
develop the iconic mode of thinking.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing
conditions
1) Ability to learn quickly how to solve problems and understand
complex issues and generally behave in a reasonable and
purposeful manner
2) IQ is measured using the formula below
I Q = MA X 100:
CA
If a learner is 15 years old, and his IQ is 100, what is the mental
age?

50
 Mental Age = 15 x 100:
100
Thus the mental age is 15

Classification of intelligence on the basis of IQ scores

Above 145 is a genius
130 – 145 is gifted
100 – 115 is above average
85 – 100 is average
65-85 is below average
50-65 is a slow learner
20-50 is severe retardation
Below 20 is profound

IQ= mental age/chronological age X 100 i.e. IQ=MA/CA x 100

Eg 16/12 X 100=133 .. gifted child.
Assuming a student has 15years and his IQ is 100, calculate the
mental age.

MA/CA X 100=_IQ
100= MA/15 X 100
=15years.

A child whose chronological age is 20 years has the IQ of 100. What

is the mental age?
MA= IQ X CA/100
MA=100X 20/100
= 20years.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Factor theory
2. Cognitive theory
Factor theories
a)Unitary or monarchic theory
According to this theory, intelligence consists of one factor, a fund
of intellectual competence which is universal to all activities of the
individual. It claims that a good standard in mathematics should be
good in all other subjects.

b)anarchic theory/ multi factor theory

proposed by [Link]. the thory is also called atomistic theory
of intelligence. It considers intelligence to be a combination of
numerous separate elements/ factors each one being a minute
element of one ability. There are highly independent specific
abilitiesthat go into the accomplishment of different tasks. (we are
borne with different abilities.) e.g auditory abilities are good for
politicians and teachers.

c) Group factor thory.

51
It was proposed by L.L. Thurstone. It refers to a situation whereby
we have factors not common to all intellectual abilities but common
to certain activities compromising a group. Certain mental
operations have a common primary factor which gives them
psychological and functional unity and which differanciates them
from other mental operations. E.g.
Verbal factors
This is concerned with comprehension of verbal relations, words or
ideas.
spatial factors
it involves manipulation of objects imaginative in space.
Numerical factors
It involves calculations
Memory factor
Deals with recall or memorizing this
Perpetual factors
Deals with the ability to perceive objects accurately.
Problem solving ability factor
Involves solving problems independently.

Cognitive theories of intelligence

1) Cartels and Horns theory
Cattel (1965) and Horn (1978) develop a theory of intelligence
distinguishing between two types of intelligence.
a) Fluid intelligence
This is a Mental capacity required for learning and problem solving.
It is dependent on genetic or biological factors normally used when
individual is facing new or strange situations requiring adaptation,
comprehension, problem solving and identifying relationships
It reaches maturity at the end of adolescence stage. It is the
intelligence we are born with.

b) Crystallized intelligence
This is intelligence that is learnt and depends on education and
individuals’ culture. Displayed or manifested in the general
knowledge of current affairs, endowment in vocabulary, knowledge
of customs and traditions, knowledge of keeping records of accounts
etc
Its characterized by high degree of socio-cultural experiences,
Education, reasoning and imagination
2) Theory of mental functioning by Jensen Arthur
According to this theory, the functioning of a person’s mind
depends upon the type and degree of intelligence one posses.
Intelligence is composed of two types.
A. Associate abilities

Involves the ability to remember, reproduce, identify, discriminate,

synthesize, assimilate transfer and apply the task measured include,
free re-cal. It is dependent on biological or maturational factor.

B. Conceptual abilities

52
 This Involves one’s ability to carry out high order
thinking, reasoning, analyzing, and capacity to solve
problems. It is measured by tasks that involve the use
of conceptual ability, abstract reasoning, analytical and
divergent thinking. It’s dependent on individual’s
educational level and culture. Its required as people
interact with others in school or wider society.

[Link]’s and Brown Theory

It was proposed by Joe Campion and Ann Brown (1979)
According to this theory, an individual’s intelligence is
composed of two parts system:-
i) Architectural system (biological)

These are systems that form the base of the individuals intellectual
functioning. It includes basic mental abilities e such as memory
capacity, rate of loss of memory and information processing ability
based on biological or innate factors (inborn).
ii) Executive system( environmental)

This system is influenced by the environment and it works as a store

house of knowledge. It includes cognitive abilities e.g mental
schemata and Cognitive learning strategies. It is the ability to plan,
evaluate, and regulate learning. It is dependent on training,
culture, education and experience.

4. Information processing theory of intelligence by Robert

Sternberg.
Robert Stenberg was an American psychologist who observed that
information processing as a manner in which a person proceeds to
perform a mental task or solve the problem from the time he comes
across it. Information processing involves the following steps.
a) Encoding –identify information relevant in the mind.
b) Inferring – conclude inte preting the problem the way it is.
c) Mapping –draws some relationship between current and previous
events.
d) Application- applies the inferred relationship.
e) Rational –give a rational of the solution of the problem
f) Response – possible solution to the problem.

He also developed a trichic structure of the theory of intelligence

based on some sub-theories.
A. Component sub theory
Decides mainly on the functioning and therefore it includes
knowledge cognisition component and performance component.
B. Experimental sub theory components
Intelligence represents the ability of the person to deal with new
tasks, problems and situations with little effort.
C. Contextual sub theory
Individual’s mental activity is directed towards purposive
adaptation to a selection and shaping of the real world environment
relevance to his own life.

53
5. Gardner Multiple intelligence
Latest 1983
Human intelligence or competence can be better described as a set
of a person’s
multiple abilities talents and mental skills related to a number of
domains of
Knowledge in a particular cultural setting types of intelligence.
e) Linguistic intelligence
Responsible for linguistic abilities and talent revealed especial in
teachers, lawyer and doctors.
f) logical mathematic intelligence
Responsible for all type of abilities talents or even skills related to
logic and mathematics common among mathematics, physists and
philosophers
g) spatial intelligence
Abilities and skills involving the representation manipulation of
special configuration and relationship-Architects, neurological
engineers and painters.
h) music intelligence
Abilities and skills that pertain to music where we look at things like
rhythm and pith.
i) intro- personal intelligence
Individual’s ability to understand him in terms of cognitive strength
and size, manifesting in things like language music.
j) inter-personal intelligence
Individual to understand other people common among teachers,
politicians, religions.
k) Bodily Kinesthetic- individual’s abilities and talents that involve
the use of the body and its part common among dancers,
sportsmen.
Development of the individuals intelligence can be attributed to:
a. Influence of heredity- identical twins similar IQ e.g.
reasoning and clothing.
b. Nature of home environment enough
c. Multi- media, enough resources to able to be exposed.
d. Nature of schools and associated facilities.
e. Size of he of the family- large families have a tendency of
children.
f. Ordinal positions in the family- later born children score
lesser IQ than earlier born children.
g. Education background of the parents- low performers
would produce children with low IQ.
h. Social economic status- baring on health condition e.g.
nutritional level
i. Physical and social surrounding of the home

INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Are two common types
Wechsler Bellevue intelligence test

54
This is based on language or verbal competence of an individual
which involve testing on comprehension, vocabulary and
arithmetic reasoning.

Stanford Binet intelligence scale

Was developed by A. Binet, a French psychologist. It was used as
a tool for identifying children who are ready for formal schooling
from those who needed remedial program. It was used for
approximating the mental age of children. It was based on the
principal of normal distribution of intelligence. It encompasses
the following areas
i. verbal reasoning
ii. Quantitative reasoning
iii. abstract reasoning
iv. short term memory

Merits of intelligence testing

It is used to select suitable candidates for admission to special
education programs, for scholarship and admission to vocational
programs or jobs.
 It’s used to classify learners in terms of average, below
average, gifted or talented among others.
 It’s used in Assessment for promotion
 It’s used in the guidance and counseling on educational,
vocational and personal issues.
 Used to enhance learning process in terms of identifying
appropriate teaching methods, learning activities and
teaching aids.
 Applied in the area of research i.e. establish the relationship
between mental capacities and age
 Used for diagnostic purposes in terms of identifying the gifted
and mentally retarded individuals.
 The knowledge of individual IQ can impact negatively on the
students who easily give up in life.
 Intelligence tests can also be misused by teachers and
parents through labeling of students.
 Misused by the society leading to racial discrimination or
ethnicity and segregation.

EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
This refers to individuals who deviates from normal or average
individuals in terms of mental, physical, emotional and social
characteristics. The person differs from others in terms of learning
abilities, social behaviour, sensory abilities and mental
characteristics.

Categories of exceptional children

1. Intellectual differences-superior or inferior
2. Communication difference –good communication skills

55
3. Sensory differences –it visual perception
4. Behavioral differences ie socially maladjusted or emotional
disturbed.
5. Physical differences i.e mobility problems.
6. Multiple problem I.e deaf, blind, deaf mentally retarded.

MENTALLY EXCEPTIONAL
1. Gifted and talented
2. Mentally retarded
Gifted and talented
One who shows consistently remarkable performance in any
worthwhile line of endeavour i.e is superior in some ability or group
of abilities.
 Exhibit superior performance in areas of their giftedness.
 They make enormous contributions to the welfare of the
individual and the society at large.
 Display skills and talents in music and drama, social leadership,
creative scientific experimentations.
 Display superiority sense of love and belongings.
 Knowledge and understanding.
 Require opportunities to satisfy the need for self esteem and self
consideration.
 Some have very low TQ.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLECTUALLY
GIFTED/ACADEMICALLY TALENTED CHILDREN
Talented person
 Large vocabulary in thinking
 Original thinking
 Quite inquisitive ask questions
 Learn at a faster rate
 Perform difficult mental task use great deal of common sense
and practical skills such individuals are always alert, thinly and
observant.
 They are able to tell what they hear and read.
 There is no need for vote drill.
In a school set up, the academically gifted persons one only 2-3 %
however they are normally neglected because:-
Inability to identify them
Some people think that they don’t require special attention
Factors that contribute to poor performance in class by the
gifted and talented people
1) Poor and boring curriculum so many subjects which are
irrelevant.
2) Have many disabilities e.g. deaf, physical, mental
3) Parents lack knowledge and skills to enhance their
development.
4) Subjected to unrealistic goal set by their parents
5) Lack support from their peers
6) Inadequate facilities in school to faster their talents.

Programs that are relevant for the gifted persons

56
 1) In some places we have separate school
2) Need to have ability grouping or classes

The program ought to be enhanced to include the following

[Link] assignments to match their abilities
2Encourage the setting up of independent projects so that you
enhance thinking
3) Encourage them to prepare reports and participate in panel
discussion.
4) Encourage independent library reading
5) Organize field trips to help them acquire first hand information
6) Encouraged to participate in the constructional models in
teaching and learning resources
7) Encourage experimentations and independent research
adventurous
8) Allow them to organize and engage in co-curricular activities
in terms of game sports etc

MENTAL RETARDEDNESS
Mentally retarded individuals experience condition of incomplete
development of mind that exists before the age of 18 years. This
can be established through
1.). conducting test of the fluids surrounding the foetal scalp or
evaluation ( collecting information and using the information for
decision making.)
2) Detection at the time of birth e.g. cases of microcephaly and
hydrocephaly can
be detected soon after birth
3) Trussing three-story of the causation or development of the
labour condition of
the mother long, caecevia, blood group incompatibility
4) Accidents
5) Exposure to some infections e.g. STDS
6) Assessing the intellectuals functioning of the individual i.e. 1 Q
tests help classify
them i.e. imbecile gauging

Behavioral characteristics
1)Display low power of ability in understand abstract concepts
( imagination concepts)
2)Poor at following simple verbal instructions e.g. to or move things
would not
3)Low intellectual label development 1 Q
4)There areas of interest aptitude and choices are limited e.g.
(menu same)
[Link] aspect is almost absent
6Low ability in the areas of imagination even reasoning or thinking

Categories of mentally retarded person

57
1) Mildly retarded
Has 1 Q – 58 – 70 educable up to upper primary level they can
adjust socially and became independent in society. Have potential
for partial or total participation in the economy.
2) Moderately retarded
 1Q 40-54 points 10% of the total population of the mentally
retarded however attain an intellectual level similar to that of 6
years old child.
 Appear clumsy, mortor inco-ordination i.e limbs.
 Dull can be trained instead of being educated.
 Rate of learning is low
 Require some consisted attention

3. Severe mental retardation

 Forms 3.5 of mentally retarded individuals, intellectual level is
similar to that of four years old child.
 Experience severe motor and speech inefficient
 Unable to master basic skills e.g. dressing themselves, feed
themselves.
 They are neither trainable nor educated.
4. Profound mental retardation
 1.5% of the mentally retarded people.
 1Q below 25 points
 Intellectual level is not better than that of two years old child
 Have other complication like physical deformities e.g. deaf.
 Defects of central nervous system, severe speech disorders.
 Some are deaf with poor motor.
 Coordination
 Need care/supervision
 Need to be institutionalized (special places)
 Mental retarded individuals in Kenya from 1.5 million.
Critical types of mental retardation
1. Mongolism - Short in structure,
2. Microcephaly –Small round heads
3. Hydrocephaly – big heads full of water

Causes of mental retardation

1) Infections e.g. STI in pregnancy
 Excessive smoking and drinking (intoxication) During pregnancy
 German and meningitis diseases
 Drugs can damage the brain
 Morning sickness drugs
 Brain Tumor
 Accidents
 Complications during delivery i.e. prolonged labor ( Thromo
/physical injury
 Poor nutrition during pregnancy and in early stages of
development
 Gross brain damage

58
  Chromosomal abnormalities i.e turners syndromes, Dawns
syndrome
 Gestational disorders i.e. case of premature birth low birth
weights
 Psychosis / psychiatric disorders manifested in cares of
schizophrenia – person belief that he is failing
 Environmental influences e.g. high poverty levels
 Failure to satisfy social and psychological needs of an individual
 Over crowding
 Rigid rules cause pressure which results to stress
 High parental expectations
Prevention measures
2) Proper care for expectant mothers and children
3) Emphasis on genetic counseling and voluntary birth control eg
in over – age
4) Public education related to causes and ways of preventing
mental retardation
5) Medical assistance to those affected/patients
6) Special education and training that emphasizes on the
following
a) Co- curricular experiences to experiences to enhance the
students social and emotional development
b) Vocational adaptation for trainable individuals
c) Qualified teachers required who are equipped with knowledge
and skills in special education
d) Proper grouping or classification of the mentally retarded
children

CREATIVITY
Various scholars have

Ability of the person to create, discovers, or produce a new idea or

object. May also involve re-shaping or re-arrangement of the
existing objects based on individuals on unique skills.
Therefore it’s the power of the human mind to create new
contents / ideas/ information, hence it’s universal (not confined to a
given individual inborn/ innate- God given or nurtured.
 It involves producing new things/ ideas
 Its adventurous, emphasis on divergent thinking.
 It includes ego- involvement (individual takes pride in a given
creation).
 Cannot be separated from intelligence
 Creativity and sociability are very related (majority of creative
individuals are sociable)
 Creativity and anxiety are related (anxiety to push to do
something).
THEORIES OF CREATIVITY
TAYLOR
Developed the level theory of creativity, hence it exists at various
levels, in an ascending hierarchy,

59
1) Expressive level of creativity
An individual doesn’t not refer/ make reference to originality
2 ) productive creativity
Individual is innovative at producing things
2) inventive creativity
Emphasis on novel use of old things (recycling old)
4) Innovative
Based on highly developed abstract or conceptualized skills
individual can come up with a new idea or model
5) Emergentive creativity
Rarely achieved/ is the most abstract level of thinking involving
developing assumptions that forms the basis of the knowledge of
Art and science.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF CREATIVITY

 Profounder by sigmund
 Perceived as a means or opportunity of releasing the
emotional energy of killing people who may divert that energy
to a meaningful activity eg Rapists compose love songs.
 Creativity is a product of expression of the repressed desires.
ARIET
Com up- theoretical notions understanding the theory of
creativity.
1) Creativity and mental illness are parallel to one another, has the
eager to
know something.
It involves transformation of reality.
2) To say that a creative person is mentally ill is guilt incorrect

CREATIVE PROCESS
Has the following stages
1) Preparation
The problem is defined or analyzed.
2) Incubation
Characterized by absence of activity (thinking of a problem
somebody deliberately turn away from the problem.
3) Illumination/ inspiration
There is a sudden appearance of a solution to a problem occurs
anytime/ when the individual is sleeping
3) revision/ verification
Involves determining the solution or idea that appeared through
insight is the correct one or not. Therefore modification may be
undertaken to make the solutions workable. Therefore creative
individual display the following behavioral
i. Original in ideas and expressions
ii. High sense of adventure
iii. Good memory i.e. general knowledge
iv. High sense degree of concentration and
enthusiasm.
v. Investigative and curious

60
 vi. Make independent decisions
vii. Fluent in expressions based on divergent thought
viii. Take pride in creation
ix. Quite tolerant and respect opinions of other.
x. High sense of self respect and justice.

TEST FOR MEASURING CREATIVTY

They include:
1. minnesota
2. Remote association test
3. Guilford divergent thinking instrument
4. Kogan Wallch
Torrance- American psychologist based on verbal and
non- verbal activities
Non-verbal forms used to test individual creativity
Figural forms A and B Picture/ figure completion test
 Individual is asked to complete figures by adding a new
dimension or lines and giving a suitable title line test.
 Use of several pair of straight lines, where the individual is
required to draw pictures by use of each pair and
eventually provide a titled.
VERBAL FORM
Individual competence in terms of words, the subject is supposed to
provide written responses to the questions put to him. Examples
a) Asking is supposed to full gaps capital city of Kenya
is----------------------
b) Unusual uses types’ posses questions to establish the divergent
thinking of the
Subjects. E.g. what are the uses of microphone a part from?
c) Unusual question type
Individual is supposed to answers unusual questions based on a
particular picture
Or photograph. Who among these seem to be criminal?
v. just suppose type
The subject is required to predict out comes of unusual situations:
how would you
Behave if you had other eyes back on your head?

STRATEGIES FOR NURTURING/ ENHANCING CREATIVITY

1. adequate freedom to individual/ student to respond to
situations
2. Provide opportunities for individual to derive satisfaction by
identify with those products.
3. Need to encourage them to express themselves freely as a
way of removing fear.
4. institutions must set mult-media centre to enhance creativity
i.e. theatre
5. Avoid convergent thinking.
6. Avoid frustration learners by subjecting them to authoritarian
kind of 88888
 Good role models

61
  Curriculum ought to be reformed by understanding
areas of flexibility originality and divergent things.

TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTION

e.g. brain storming, use of teaching models, role play
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

 Synonymous abnormal psychology

 Abnormality is deviation from the average.

PERSPECTIVE OF ABNORMALITY
Medical perspective the rout course of abnormal behaviour is found
in physical examination of a person i.e. hormonal imbalance, brain
injury.
PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Children conflict/ expressions over the opposing wishes regarding
sex and aggression,
VARIOUS BEHAVIOURS

 Focuses on behaviour itself as a problem

 Social cultural perspective individual normal or abnormal
behaviour is shaped by kind of family group society and
culture in which he lives.
EXAMPLE OF ABNORMAL DISORDERS
2) Anxiety disorders
A feeling of tension in a stressful situation
TYPE OF ANXIETY
a) Phobic intense / rational fears of specific situation or objects
 Acrophobia-fear of high places
 Gephyrophobia-fear bridges
 Ochlophobia- fear crowds
 Thanntophobia- fear death
 Hydrophobia- fear water

b) Panic disorders-anxiety reveals itself in a form of panic attack i.e.

a lot of sweating, Urge to urinate.
Genetic factors and behavioral factors
SOMATO FORM DISORDER
Psychological difficulty that takes a physical form e.g. constant fears
of illness.
Dissociative disorders
Psychological disorder characterized by separation of critical
personality facets are normally integrated e.g. pair of shoes and
glasses.

MOOD DISORDERS
Strong emotional feeling that interfere with individuals daily life e.g.
Mania intense happiness/ power.
Dipolar disorder- characterized by periods of mania and depression.
SCHIZOPHRENIA

62
Individual’s emotion and perception detritions characterized by
unshakable believers e.g. somebody.
Hallucinations- perceive non existence things withdrawal.
PERSONALITY DISORDER
Mental disorder characterized by inflexible multi adaptive
personality traits e.g. anti social personality disorder. (Psychopath)
individual is unable to tolerate frustrations can injure other people,
display criminal behaviors caused by death of parents or poverty.
BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER
Individuals have difficulty in developing a secure sense of who they
are, unable to control their anger, engage in self distractive
behaviors.
TREATMENT FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
a) Behavioral treatment approach
 Based upon the use of reinforcements or rewards in order to
control a certain behavior e.g. aversive conditioning technique
help one who is a drug addict.
 Systematic desensitization- introduction the individual in steps
to an anxiety provoking stimuli until fear is eliminated.
 Operant condition.
b) psycho-dynamic approaches- one has a lot of conflict individual
develops defensive mechanism to protect time self from anxiety
provoking stimuli e.g. identify.

Cognitive approach
Help the individual thinking in more adaptive ways or think
rationally or logically.
Bio- medical treatment/ therapy
 Drug therapy e.g. use of depressants e.g. valium
 Psycho-surgery
Brain surgery to reduce symptom of mental disorders.
Physiological and psychological needs of the food, companion needs
of the youth.
ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence stands out as a fascinating, interesting and
challenging period of human growth and development. It is a span
of year between 12 yrs to 22 yrs of age.
Culturally, It is seen as transit period with individuals changing
from children to adults. Transition implies the following;
i)Age at which young people are no longer children but are not yet
grown up
Individuals are looking to the future of adulthood while disregarding
the present
(ii)Adolescents don’t accept they are in transition and prefer to be
called teenagers
About biological changes signal the end of childhood and marks
the onset of adolescence. These changes result in rapid growth in
being and weight in bodily proportions and attainment from
adolescence to young adulthood is marked by social and emotional
changes.

63
 Development tasks that have to be satisfied during
adolescence include:
 Attaining individuality
 Making progress towards organized personality pattern
 Developing a physiology of life
 Developing a concept of values and desirable behavior
 Achieving a place in the society
 Understanding personal assets and inabilities
 Establishing deep personal relationships with individuals of
both sexes

64