COVER PAGE

IMPACT OF TIV LANGUAGE ON TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH

AS A SECOND LANGUAGE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KATSINA

ALA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, BENUE STATE

BY

DAVID DIDOO
20062944131

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION, CENTRE FOR UNDERGRADUATE

STUDIES, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, KATSINA ALA, IN AFFILIATION WITH

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR, CALABAR

OCTOBER, 2025.
TITLE PAGE
IMPACT OF TIV LANGUAGE ON TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH

AS A SECOND LANGUAGE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KATSINA

ALA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, BENUE STATE

BY

DAVID DIDOO

20062944131

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION,

CENTRE FOR UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION,

KATSINA ALA, IN AFFILIATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR,

CALABAR IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREE IN ENGLISH EDUCATION B.A. (ED)

ENGLISH

OCTOBER, 2025.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that research work on impact of Tiv Language on teaching and learning

of English as a second Language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina-Ala Local

Government Area of Benue State was carried out by David Didoo with Matriculation

20062944131 in the Department of Arts Education, Centre for Undergraduate Studies,

College of Education, Katsina-Ala in Affiliation with the University of Calabar, Cross River

State.

……………………… ………………………
Chief Agera Andrew Ate.(PhD) Date
Supervisor

……………………… ………………………

Chief Mrs. Ameh Josephine Date

HOD English and Literary Studies

……………………… ………………………

Chief Hongor S.V. Date

Dean, School of Languages

……………………… ………………………

External Examiner Date

 DECLARATION

I, David Didoo, with Matriculation Number 20062944131 an undergraduate student in the

Department of Arts Education, Centre for Undergraduate Studies, College of Education,

Katsina-Ala in Affiliation with University of Calabar, Calabar do hereby declare that this

project work is an original research carried out by me. It has not been presented in any form

whatsoever in any previous application for the award of a degree by any university or

institution. All the sources of information cited have been duly referenced
 DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty God and to the loving memory of my late father
Pa. David Akombo.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My gratitude first goes to Almighty God for His infinite mercies, wisdom, guidance and

protection given me throughout the course and accomplishment of my studies.

Words would not adequately capture and express my gratitude to my supervisor

Dr. Agera Andrew Ate for painstakingly and meticulously reading my work to ensure it meets

the set standards.

I remain eternally grateful to the provost, the Dean School of Languages, the Director

and the entire management staff of Centre for Undergraduate Studies College of Education,

Katsina-Ala in Affiliation with University of Calabar for providing the enabling environment

for me to successfully undertake this programme.

My appreciation also goes to the Head of Department Arts Education, Dr. Ameh

Josephine and other lecturers in the Department, namely: Dr. Ayem Shoja, Mr. Gar Edward,

Mr. Amough Aondona, Mr. Okawu Sunday, Dr. Fanwam Boniface, Dr. Gbaaikyo Lamana,

Mr. Nyajo Samuel, Mr. Nyon, Mr. Uzer Moses, Dr .Dankaro Joyce, Dr. Viashima Maureen

and Monsieur Kpagh Michael of the French Department for their tireless efforts in making sure

that we received quality education.

My appreciation also goes to all the lecturers that taught me. They include: Dr. Iyue

Tyodoo, Dr. Iyo Joseph, Dr. Iorshal Andrew, Dr. Doggoh, B.T., Mr. Iortyer, T.S., Mr.

Oragande Terhemen, Mr. Amua Dzomon, Mr. Chiila Samuel, and Mr. Mfaga Iorkoso for their

words of encouragement, wise counsels, constructive criticisms and tireless efforts in ensuring

that I receive quality teaching.

My special gratitude also goes to my darling husband Mr. Korom Terna for the

sponsorship, peace of mind, prayers and encouragement that I enjoyed from him throughout my

period of study. To my beloved children Silas Mhenuter, Emmanuel Msooter, Clement Tersur

and Ann Iveren I deeply appreciate you for your patience, endurance, love and understanding

during my period of study.

 I am also grateful to Her Royal Majesty Becky Torkula for her support, encouragement

and prayers for me during the programme. I sincerely appreciate my mother-in-law Mrs.

Theresa Mwarfan Korom for the pieces of advice, encouragement and prayers that I enjoyed

from her. My special thanks also go to my father Zaki. David Adewar Togo and his wife Mrs.

Togo Mbateren for their prayers, parental advice and support throughout this challenging study

period. To my late father David Akombo and mother Mrs. Dooshima Akombo, I forever

remain thankful to you for laying my educational foundation. My immeasurable gratitude also

goes to all my siblings for their understanding, prayers and support.

This acknowledgement will be incomplete without specially recognizing the wonderful

companionship, inspirations encouragements and assistance that I received from my classmates

and friends Achwande Dennis, Gundu Tersoo, Adu Terdue Philip, Shiva Priscila, Agbe Festus,

Kogi Tordue, Terna Torernyi, Akombo Felix and Gwa Phoebe among others too numerous to

mention here. Finally, I sincerely appreciate Mr. Tortiv for his valuable contributions and

inputs into the research work.

.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

CCERTIFICATION ii

DECLARATION iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF APPENDICES vii

ABSTRACT viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

1.2 Theoretical Framework

1.3 Statement of the Problem

1.4 Purpose of the Study

1.5 Research Questions

1.6 Research Hypothesis

1.7 Significance of the Study

1.8 Scope of the Study

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms-

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction - - - - - - - -

2.2 Language Learning and Language Acquisition - -

2.3 Concept of Tiv Language - - - - - -

2.4 English Language as a Second Language - - -

2.5 Tiv Language Impact on the Learning of English as a second Language

2.6 Impact of Tiv Language on the use of English grammar in Second Language Learni

2.7 Impact of Tiv Language on the Pronunciation of English Sounds - - -

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction - - - - - - -

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - -

3.2 Area of Study - - - - - - -

3.3 Population - - - - - - - -

3.4 Sample and Sampling- - - - - -

3.5 Instrumentation - - - - - - -

3.5.1 Validation of instrument - - - -

3.5.2 Method of Data Collection - - - - -

3.6 Method of Data Analysis - - - - -

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction - - - - - - -
4.1 Data presentation, Analysis and Interpretation - -

4.2 Discussion of findings - - - - - -

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION AND

SUGGESTION

5.0 Introduction - - - - - - - -

5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - -

5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - -

5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - -

5.4 Limitations - - - - - - - - -

5.5 Suggestions for further study - - - -

References - - - - - - - - -
Appendix -
List of Tables

Table 1: Mean scores of English teachers on the impact of Tiv Language on the

pronunciation of English sounds.- - - - -

Table 2: Mean scores of English teachers on Tiv Language impact on the use of grammar-

- - - - -

Table 3: Mean scores of English teachers on how Tiv Language affects the use of lexical

items on the use of grammar

Table 4: Test of hypothesis one (1)- - - - -

Table 5: Test of hypothesis two (2) - - - -

Table 6: Test of hypothesis three (3) - - - -

 ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to look at and identify the impact of Tiv Language on teaching and
learning of English as a second Language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala Local
Government Area of Benue state. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. A random
sample of 160 English teachers was drawn from schools in the study area to respond to the
questionnaire. Three research questions were formulated respectively. The data collected
were analyzed using simple percentage, mean and standard deviation to analyze the research
questions as well as the chi-square (x2) statistics at alpha level of P < 0.05 to test the
hypothesis. Findings showed that mother–tongue has significant impact on pronunciation of
English sounds, use of lexical items and on the use of English grammar. Conclusion was
drawn that mother–tongue impacts significantly indeed on the teaching and learning of
English as a second language and so there is need for the language to be spoken and used
appropriately and intelligently such that it will be devoid of every mother–tongue impact.
It was recommended that over reliance on the structures and lexicons of the Tiv Language by
second language learners should be discouraged and controlled by second language teachers.
Also, second language teachers should endeavour to give priority attention to the
development of oral language competence in the second language learner.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODDUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Language is the pivot on which all human activities ranging from the most prosaic to

the most profound revolve. Language provides the world view, moral values and virtually all

the basic ingredients of any given society which are passed on from generation to generation.

The essential thread that runs through all these activities is communication. That is,

speakers trying to exchange their ideas. It is the most lasting and enduring artifact of culture.

As a natural ability, language is an indispensable tool which human beings use daily for

communication; it enables a social group to arrange, preserve and share its values, ideas,

philosophy, technology and history. It also spread through our thoughts and areas into our

dreams. The bulk of human knowledge is stored in language.

Language is characterized by a set of vocal sounds which can be decided. These are

produced by the human organs of speech namely, lips, tongue, larynx, glottis, pharynx,

nostrils, teeth, soft palate, hard palate, uvula, trachea, velum and alveolar ridge. It is an

integral part of culture; a reflection of many features of a given cultural experience (Akindele

& Adegbite ,2005).

Language is a productive or creative phenomenon. This Suggests that out of the

alphabets produced in a language, a limitless number of sentences, paragraphs exist and

operate within a language of one form or the other. Human beings therefore, use language to

communicate their individual thoughts, inner feelings and personal psychological

experiences. It must be stressed that human beings communicate using signs, symbols, nods,

dresses, and other socially acceptable formality. It is an indispensable tool for teaching and

learning as well as development of human, (Ozoemena, Ngwoke & Nwokolo, 2021).

 The most important role of language is its usefulness as a medium of social

communication. The entrenchment of English language in Nigeria is perhaps most noticeable

in the field of education. English language is taught as a second language (L2) in Nigerian

schools. English as a second language in Nigeria plays a vital role in connecting people of

different linguistic backgrounds and playing the prominent role of being the language of

education. Beyond the early elementary level of schooling, English as a second language

(L2) becomes the medium of instruction. The Nigerian National Policy on Education (2004)

leaves no one in doubt about this (p.12).

Nigeria is a heterogeneous or multi-lingua country with diverse cultures. Government

will ensure effective delivery of instructions and attendant positive learning outcomes, Tiv

Language (MT) or Language of the Immediate Community (LIC) shall be used as the

medium of instruction from Early Childhood Care and Development Education to the six

years of primary education (FGN, 2022). Because of Nigeria’s multi-lingua nature, it is quite

glaring that it is really difficult to have a single language as the medium of communication

and particularly for instruction, hence the adoption of English language as the official

language of communication and instruction in Nigeria.

In view of the prominent role assigned English in the Nigerian situation, the role of

the language becomes crucial in the lives of the people. The status of English as a second

language implies that” English plays a very important function in the social, professional and

educational lives of Nigerians” (Banjo, 1999). Indeed to be regarded as an educated Nigerian,

according to Banjo, some level of proficiency in English is required.

There is however, a noticeable disparity in the features of the Nigerian indigenous

languages: Tiv Language and those of the second or target language. When one speaks or

writes, there is usually a transfer of features of the Tiv Languages (MT) into the second

language (L2). This phenomenon gives rise to the Tiv Language exerting major impacts on
the second language. This is usually referred to as “interference “. Brimful (2001) confirms

this when he points out that truly, Nigerian learners cannot learn English effectively as

possible as the native speakers due to the effect of their Tiv Language which is mostly

noticeable at the phonological level.

There may be incidence of interference by direct translation. In the case of grammar

and phonology, it is easily noticeable where some vowels of the Tiv Language (MT) are not

present in English Language and vice-versa. There may be instances where some learners of

English Language insert imaginary vowels between consonant clusters, thereby reflecting all

manner of local and regional impacts which makes the teaching and learning of the target

language difficult for learners.

One Implication of this is that, English Language has to be taught and learnt very

well. According to Tiffen (1996), it is a question of ensuring that learners have a complete

mastery of the language. Second language learners appear to accumulate structural entities of

the target language but demonstrate difficulty in organizing this knowledge into appropriate

coherent structures which is often caused by the impact of the Tiv Language.

1.2 Theoretical Framework

Internationist Theory of Language Learning.

This theory was propounded by George Herbert Mead along with Max Weber;

propounded interactionism in the 1930. He gave a large amount of importance to the

meanings of symbols as they affected interactions between individuals and groups. He also

stated that these interactions had significant impacts on the development of the individual as

well. Furthermore, interactions affected how people viewed other individuals, which gave

every person reason to interact according to the pattern expected by society.

This study is centered on this Interactionist theory of language learning that incorporates

nature argument in that, children can be influenced by their environment in their language
usage as well as the language imputes, they as learner’s receive and are continuously exposed

to. The theory holds that language learners do not encounter language in isolation. Children

learn language from their language experiences and a language structure emerges from

language use. The theory also contends that the language of the learner’s environment

influences the child’s learning of a non-native language because such a language of its

environment provide the child with the means of making sense of its own behaviours and a

means of his social interaction. The utterances of the father and mother also provide

ritualized language scenarios and predictable language situations so that the child is gradually

moved to a position when the ritualized language becomes a part of him/her which in the long

run may impede the learning of a foreign language.

The above theory becomes imperative to this study owing to the fact that the knowledge

of how the child acquires his/her interaction in the learning environment would assist

language teachers in reducing and guiding against the effects of Tiv Language on

1.3 Statement of the Problem

In deciding to carry out a research in this area, certain problems stimulated the

researcher to investigate and ascertain the extent to which Tiv Language impacts on the

teaching and learning of English as a second language in Junior Secondary Schools in

Katsina Ala Local Government Area of Benue State.

In fact, learning a second language after a child has acquired his Tiv Language (MT)

is bound to be problematic. There may be incidences of interference by direct translation in

the case of the Tiv Language on the English Language and wrong translation of lexical items

from Tiv Language to the teaching and learning of English language. This study is therefore,

designed to survey the impact of the Tiv Language on teaching and learning of English as a

second language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala Local Government Area of

Benue state.
1.4 Purpose of the Study

The aim of this research work is to investigate the impact of Tiv Language on the

teaching and learning of English as a second language in Junior Secondary Schools in

Katsina Ala Local Government Area. Specifically, the study seeks to:

(i) Investigate the impact of Tiv Language on the pronunciation of English sounds by

learners at the Junior Secondary School level.

(ii) Examine the impact of the Tiv Language on the use of English grammar by learners

at the Junior Secondary School level.

(iii) Find out the impact of the Tiv Language on the lexical features of English as a second

language.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions have been formulated to serve as a guide for this study;

(i) In what ways does the Tiv Language impact the pronunciation of English sounds by

learners at the Junior Secondary School level?

(ii) How does the Tiv Language impact the use of grammar by English learners at the

Junior Secondary School level?

(iii) To what extent does Tiv Language impact the use of lexical items of English by

learners at the Junior Secondary School level?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are formulated and will be tested at 0.05 level of

significance.

(i) Tiv Language has no significant impact on the pronunciation of English sounds by

Junior Secondary School learners of English language.

(ii) Tiv Language has no significant impact on the use of grammar by Junior Secondary

School learners of English language.

(iii) Tiv Language has no significant impact on the use of lexical items of English as a

second language.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This research work on the impact of the Tiv Language on the teaching and learning of

English language is not an end in itself, rather, there is hope that this study may aid better

planning and decision making in language education in schools such that the adverse effect of

Tiv Language usage in second language classroom could be minimized and controlled.

This project work would probably aid government in the area of planning the

language curriculum and its policies.

Furthermore, this study may aid both language teachers and learners in accumulation

of the grammatical, phonological and lexical knowledge of English language and organise

this knowledge into appropriate means of better understanding the working of the linguistic

system of the target language. It could enable readers to understand «why “and “how” Tiv

Language impact the teaching and learning of English language grammatically,

phonologically as well as the use of lexical items.

Also, English teachers or linguists may benefit from the data suggestion and

observations of the researchers. Linguists could be motivated to carry out more defined

research on the impact of Tiv Language on the effective teachings and learning of English

language.

1.8 Scope of the Study

The Scope of the study is delimited to the impact of Tiv Language on the teaching and

learning of English as a second language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina-Ala Local

Government Area of Benue State. The variable of the study includes pronunciation, use of
grammar and use of lexical items. The study will cover all the Junior Secondary Schools in

the study area.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined extensively as have been used in this study:

Tiv Language: This refers to the language widely spoken among the Tiv people in Benue,

Taraba, Nasarawa, Plateau States and the FCT. In this study, the Tiv Language is the major

language spoken in Katsina Ala L G A.

Impact: This refers to the power to affect people’s actions in which situations change the

functions of something. In this study, impact will be the Tiv Language; will affect the

function of English Language.

Language learning: This is a process whereby language learners engage in activity skills of

a language. In this study, language learning will be the learning of English language skills

like grammar, vocabulary and speech.

Language teaching: This is an art of imparting useful knowledge into learners to aid them

learn a language by a teacher. In this study, language teaching here will be the English

Language.

Second language (L2): In this study therefore, English language is regarded as a second

language.

Pronunciation: This refers to the ability to articulate the correct stress, rhythm, and

intonation of a word in a English language.

Grammar: This refers to the study of the internal structures of words and the use of words in

the construction of phrases and sentences in English Language. This includes morphology,

syntax and phonology often complemented by phonetics, semantics and pragmatics in

English Language.
Lexical Items: This refers to a single word, a part of a word or a sequence of words that

form the basic elements of English language lexicon.

 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

This chapter explores the work of other scholars and researchers that are related to this

study. It is divided into the following subheadings:

2.2 Language Learning and Language Acquisition

In spite of the inter-changeability of use, language acquisition connotes the use of

language concepts as a matter of fact; according to Krashen (2001) language acquisition is a

subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a language, while language

learning is a process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules and are generally aware

of the process. Language learning is a deliberate effort targeted at having both linguistic and

communicative competence under the guidance of a language teacher. In other words,

language acquisition they said could be explained based on the fact that learning a language

involves more of learning the rules governing a language than learning the use of such a

language. To a very large extent, language learning depends on internal factors of the

language learner while that of language acquisition depends more on external factors.

To Taylor (1994), the presence of the first language in the mind of the second

language learner influences the acquisition of all subsequent languages. “The learning of one

language in childhood is an inevitable process; the learning of the second language is special;

it is not as easily mastered as that of the first language.” To Kiymazarslan (2002), meaning

plays an important role in human learning.

According to Klarson (1999), success in language is dependent on such factors as age

of the learner, learner’s attitude towards the target language and psychological factors.

Klarson (2001) notes that, in learning a language, learners get explicit knowledge of a

language when they process language input with the intention of discovering the structural

rules of the language.

 Klarson (2001), went further to comment that the process of language learning is

an open-ended process that is usually, affected by several factors. To Klarson, Tiv

Language of the learners plays a major role in learning such a second language. In this

way, she offers that the Tiv Language of the learner, which is acquired usually,

influences the level of the target language which sometimes is different from the Tiv

Language of the learner. A careful look at the assertion above would lead to the

conclusion that a distinction between the implicit and natural learning involved in

acquiring the Tiv Language and the mix of implicit and explicit learning that takes

place in second language learning has been one analytical route for understanding the

more limited success linguistic adults as well as the intricacies involved in learning

such a target language. Akindele & Adegbite (2005).

2.3 The Origin of the Tiv People

The Tiv people are an ethno-linguistic nation in Nigeria. They constitute

approximately 3.5% of the total population and numbers over seven million people

throughout Nigeria and Cameroun. They are the fifth largest ethnic group in Nigeria.

Linguistics evidence shows that, the Tiv language belongs to the Niger-Congo group of

languages. The Tiv people speak a Bantu related language and share certain cultural and

physical traits with the Bantu Nyanza of Central and Southern Africa in the area of physique,

dance, arts, language and worship. This implies that the Tiv might have migrated from the

Central or Southern Africa region to Swem and settled there for some time before migrating

to their present location.

Different writers say different things about Swem. Dorward regarded Swem as a

mythical place similar to the Garden of Eden, Bohanna suggested that Swem might be a hill

located at lyon in the South Eastern Tiv land, Makar is of the view that Swem is a mountain
located in the district of Nyiev mba sha ya" close to Cameroon (Makar 1994). Iyo describes

Swem as the area around the Cameroon-Obudu Plateau. Some scholars are of the opinion that

the Tiv people never stayed at Swem but only passed through on their way from their Central

or Southern Africa homeland. Whether they stayed or only rested at Swem, the significance

of Swem in the history of Tiv people cannot be overemphasized.

There are so many reasons advanced for what caused the migration of Tiv people

from Swem according to oral accounts. Some people say the population of the Tiv became

numerous and Swem could not accommodate them. Others say that the land was infertile,

others maintain that the Tiv were attacked by new comers in the area, others say that it was

because of conflict and war with the Bafum, other maintain that it as the violations of the

ilyum alter that caused this migration (Iyo:2007). According to this view Karagbe of Nongov

committed a serious crime by throwing the corpse of his son on the ilyum alter and this

brought great fear to the people so they decided to leave. But we have to accept the fact that

the period after 1500 A.D was marked by the intensification of inter and intra-ethnic

hostilities. The period was also marked by increase in population and many people were

migrating so this might have actually caused the departure of Tiv from Swem.

The migration of the Tiv people from Swem in to the lower Benue valley occurred in

phases and periods. According to lyo (2007), the first phase was occasioned by the collapse

of Swem from 1475 - 1535 A.D, the second phase covered the period 1535-1595A.D, the

third phase of migration occurred 1595-1775A.D and the fourth phase covered 1775-

1900A.D. The migration was not orderly but dislocational and did not follow continuity in

settlement pattern according to clan relationships. Thus the sons of Ichongo are found in the

mist of Ipusu. This is also the reason why there is duality or more in lineages scattered all

over Tivland today. For example, the Ucha clan can be found among Iharev of Gwer West
Local Government Area and also in Ukum Local Government Area. There is also the issue of

Sha Ya and Shin Tiev.

The first phase of migration from 1475-1535 was occasioned by the collapse of Swem

cradle land. The second phase of migration, which lasted from 1535 - 1595, occurred when

waves of Tiv emigrants first arrived into the area within the Cameroon - Obudu complex and

settled at the hills of Nwange, Yavwua and Ibinda. The third phase of migration was when

they left Nwange and other hills from 1595 - 1775 A.D. at this time Jechira left in two broad

streams, Kunav moved directly south of Ngokugh hill and Gaav moved southwest and settled

next to Udam of Obudu and Ogoja respectively (Iyo:2007). Jemgbagh and Kwande moved

and occupied most of the present central Tivland (Makar:1994). Ukum moved North-west of

Nwange and occupied the Ngokugh hill of Ishangev-Ya in South-Eastern Tivland, Tongov,

Ikurav, Nongov and Turan moved directly Northwards from Nwange and occupied the plains

surrounding the hills of Barakuv, Womondo and Ityokegh (Nyiev and Nanev areas) Masev,

Iharev, Ugondo and Shitire moved and occupied the plains around Ibinda hills now located in

Ikyurav-ya (Makar.1994).

The fourth phase of migration was from 1775 - 1900. This was when the Tiv people

dispersed from the above locations to their present locations. This emigration became

pertinent due to overcrowding which led to inter and intra clan disputes. Therefore the

Ichongo groups continued their movement towards new frontiers into an area that was

already inhabited by proto-Idoma groups fleeing from Apa (lyo: 2007). The Isherev, Utyondo

and Nongov later crossed river Benue Their migration was not orderly but dislocational and

did not follow the settlement pattern according to clan relationship as already discussed.

Reasons advanced for this expansion was that of population increase and quest or desire of

the people to secure more farmland to feed the growing population.

 As the Tiv people migrated they came in contact with the non-Tiv tribes of Fulani,

Chamba, Jukun, Idoma, Ugee, Utange, Undir, Etulo among others. These groups engaged

them in warfare but Tiv had an upper hand due to their population, their poisoned arrows and

it is also believed that in the 19th Century the Jukun and Chamba powers were already on the

decline and could not challenge them.

2.4 The Culture of the Tiv People

The Tiv ethnic nationality as a people constitutes one of the major ethnic groups in

Benue State of Nigeria (Okajile 2000).Though, there are some variations among the Tiv, Tiv

speaking communities share common cultures such as marriages, burial and some other

ceremonies. Each Tiv speaking community has a chief who presides over the village heads,

and the village heads settle disputes among their people especially those concerning land.

They are communalistic in outlook, sharing each other’s burdens, sorrow, joy, and happiness.

The majority of the Tiv people are subsistence and commercial farmers. They practice the

slash and burn methods of bush clearing and use hoes to till the land. The farm produce

includes cassava, yams, rice, groundnut, etc. and variety of vegetables. Some men also

practice hunting.

Socially, the Tiv society was divided into several social units. The social units include

the compound or ya, family group or Antarev, Kindred or Ityo, the principal lineage or Itar

and the Tiv country or tar Tiv. Social and political activities were conducted based on these

divisions. Politically, there was no central authority over Tivland in pre-colonial era. Thus the

sociopolitical organization was based on the social units i.e the compound, the family group,

the kindred, the principal lineage and the Tiv country (Varvar: 2007). These units formed the

basis of government of the Tiv people before European conquest. Political power and

authority was in the hands of elders. Traditional administration was carried out by the council

of elders of the different units and each unit had autonomy in handling matters within its
competence. The issues falling outside the sphere of influence was delegated to the other

appropriate council with greater power.

At the bottom of the power structure was the ya or (household or compound). The

most important personality in the household was orya (compound head) who was the eldest

main in the compound. He took decisions on all matters be it political, social or economic in

his compound. He exercises dual authority in the compound; he was its chairman, spokesman

and chief executive. Several households or compounds each claiming a common grandfather

or great grandfathers was regarded as Anterev or family group. Any political or social

problem that was beyond the compound council was passed to the family group council of

elders. At its meetings the eldest person presided although elders of all related family groups

contributed. The problem or issues handled by this unit were of a greater magnitude and all of

it centered on disputes about the possession of female wards (angor), family farm disputes,

sickness and death of children.

The highest power structure was the kindred, matters that could not be handled in the

lower units were delegated to this council of elders. Several family groups within a kindred

belonged to this assembly. The kindred council was attended by all adult males. However,

deliberations were made only by the elders. But at times the elders could choose a spokesman

who was always in constant touch with the elders. This council of elders handled cases such

as murder cases, took decisions on projects involving compulsory labour such as construction

of wooden bridges, setting of new markets among others. The power of the ityo could only be

challenged by maternal kinsmen (igba).

The principal lineage or Itar, were synonymous with the sons of Ipusu and Ichongo in

the genealogical tree. For example there was Tar ukum, Iharev, Tongov etc. This unit

consisted of a number of kindred and the political affairs were conducted by a council of

elders representing the composite kindred. This unit handled matters that were of a magnitude
that affected the whole clan such as epidemics, prolonged draughts and pests that could lead

to famine. The whole Tiv community formed the largest political unit. Although there was no

central authority over Tivland, representatives of the Tiv people used to meet to take vital

decisions on issues affecting the whole Tiv people. This was done especially at the early

times before their expansion into the Benue Valley. They usually met to discuss matters

relating to external aggression from the non-Tiv tribes. When external aggression and wars

were subdued, this council of elders became gradually inactive. The maternal kinsmen were

also important in the power structure of the Tiv people. An individual who injustice was done

to could appeal to his maternal kinsmen for arbitration. People who were afraid of death or

any problem could even park and settle in their maternal homeland for safety.

2.5 The Tiv Language

Tiv people are found in Benue, Nasarawa, Taraba and Cross Benue States of Nigeria,

but the majority of them are found in Benue State in Nigeria and the Cameroun . Linguistic

evidence shows that, the Tiv language belongs the Niger-Congo group of languages. They

speak a Bantu related language. The Tiv language possesses most of the vital qualities of a

standard language but which is yet to be fully standardized. The language has a formal

writing system, grammar books, and many literature texts and are used in school for

academic purpose ( Udu, 2009).The language is also taught in College of Education ,

Katsina- Ala.

2.6 English as a Second Language

Benson (2004:23) asserted that second language as “a non-native language,

foreign/target language”. Gunderson (2009:54) in the same vein viewed second language as

“a traditional term for the use or study of the English language by non-native speakers in an

English-speaking environment”. Logically, second language is not necessarily the second

language learn by a bi/multi-lingual Person. It may be the third, fourth among others.
language of the speaker which functionally performs a secondary rather than primary role for

communication. In other words, it does not perform the primary role of expression but the

secondary role of identification, educational status, and social status among others. This is

one important feature usually placed in a formal classroom setting. With this, the language is

acquired or learnt in segments and the speaker develops linguistic competence in it rather

than communicative competence. Making attempts to facilitate the learning of English as a

second language in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized. This is said thus, because of the

position of the language in Nigeria. According to Banes (1998:36), “the multi-lingual nature

of the Nigerian Society has placed English as an exoglossic language at the heart of Nigerian

communicative system, compared to the other estimated 500 indigenous languages, spoken

by numerous ethnic groups.”

Therefore, its knowledge and competence does not only enhance national

communicative ability but as well as indigenous one’s placement at the higher social echelon

of the society. English language has served as a model language to so many languages

especially in structure. Apart from this peculiar feature of English language, it is also a stress

toned language. This makes its usage melodic and thus, appealing to many of its non-native

users (Wale 1999).

The English language has been a very significant segment of the communication

network in the Nigerian multi-lingual society. Enumerating the use of English as a

communication tool in Nigeria, Eyisi (2009 :19), stated that; “The English language occupies

a pride of position in the Nigerian society. It can be perceived as the most important legacy

from the British to Nigeria” . Being a language of prestige and model for national,

international communication, the English language also assumes the role of the language of

education in Nigeria. The implication of this is that being a second language in the country,

there is need for it to be cautiously taught to and learnt by its non-native speakers (Banjo
1999). To Bodga (1995:248), “there is need for Oral English to be introduced as part of the

Nigerian syllabus both in Junior and Secondary Schools” . He illustrates that “Spoken

English should be introduced in Nigerian secondary schools for proper control of the

students’ speech habits at the early stage of their English language learning and usage to

minimize the phonological problems that result from error in pronunciation “ .

According to Oyetunde & Moudumougu (1999), upgraded learning of English

Language competence and educational cchievement. To them, English tends to be taught as

if it were a first or foreign language in Nigeria that a child acquires or learns after his Tiv

Language but because of the many important roles it plays in the Nigerian society. For

example, it is a common language in Nigeria, a language of communication between and

among people from different linguistic background. It is also the official language, that is, the

language of government as well as the language of education (Oyetunde & Moudumougu,

1999). Beyond the very elementary level of schooling, English becomes the medium of

instruction and subject in the curriculum of Nigeria education.

The National Policy on Education (2004:12) leaves no one in doubt about this;

“Government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary school is

initially the Tiv Language or the language of the immediate community and at a later stage,

English” Second language learning has continued to pose learning challenges to English as a

second language in Nigeria. As it is, many of the teachers of English are non- native speakers

and secondly, the language is being learnt and used far away from its natural environment.

Elugbe (2002:10) observed that “non- native speakers are not likely to have expertise in

second language because only the native speakers can claim to have expertise and

proficiently in the language” Other users are only aspiring to reach the target of proficiency,

especially in spoken English. It has been observed that an English learner and user of a
second language may not likely have competence during the performance (usage) of the

second language.

Elugbe (2002:12) sees “performance in the light of proficiency which a non-native

speaker does not have in full. To him, a basic obstacle to this is Tiv Language

interference” .The English language has a global status; it is an international language,

especially in the business, scientific, legal, political and academic communities (Barbara,

2001). In the same vein, Banjo (1999:13) said that, the implication of the status of English as

a second language is that it “plays a very paramount role in the social, professional and

educational life of Nigeria.” Indeed, to be regarded as an educated Nigerian, according to

Banjo, (1999) some level of proficiency in English is required. He justifies this as follows:

An educated man is at least secondary educated, then no “Nigerian who speaks no

English can be regarded as being educated. The reason for this should be obvious: English is

a key subject at the primary and secondary levels and indeed becomes the medium of

instruction before primary level”

. To Oyetunde & Moudumougu (1999), an obvious implication of all this is that

English has to be taught and learnt very well. According to Tiffen (1997: 11). “It is a question

of ensuring that pupils have a complete mastery of the language, an ability to use it which is

almost second nature.” English being a second language means that it is not the Tiv Language

of any ethnic group in Nigeria and this means that, it’s teaching and learning in schools is not

a question of refining a language already. It is that children should be helped to learn English

by trying not to rely on the structures of their Tiv Language which has tremendous influence

on their learning of other languages and in this case, the English language (Oyetunde and

Muodumougu, 1999). The attitude of the Nigerian students towards English is that of

prestige. Therefore, the quest for its learning is high. Meanwhile, there are several impeding

factors in its learning and usage. Important among these factors is the presence of an already
established language, the Tiv Language of the child, which is mostly transferred into the

target language thereby affecting it to a greater extent.

2.7 Tiv Language Impact on the Learning of English as a Second Language

The impact of Tiv Language on English as a second language can be analyzed on the

basis of language interference. These effects can be witnessed in the area of pronunciation of

English sounds, the selection of lexical items as well as the use of English grammar.

According to Dewale & Furham (2000), language transfer typically refers to the

learners trying to apply rules and forms of the first language into the second language. This

term can also include the transfer of features from one additional language to another, such as

from a second to a third language.

Language transfer is an important factor in second language learning. To Feng,

(2017), typical second language learners begin by transferring sound (phonetic transfer).

Later on in the process of learning, the learner employs semantic transfers as well as various

rules including word-order and selection of lexical items. Language transfer could be in two

ways:

To Orgue (2003), the situation where language is not completely dissimilar in

structure and form may bring about negative and positive transfer. By negative transfer,

Williams (2002) explained that, it is the application of rules and usage of the language to

another but which contracted with the rules and usage of the second language. On the other

hand; positive transfer may be seen as when the rules applied to the target language conform

with it appropriately. Since most indigenous languages used by most Nigerians as Tiv

Language are tonal, as against the international nature of the English language, second

language learners often engage in negative transfer, thereby applying English Language

(Taiwo 1 999).
 The result of language transfer is language inference. Linguists have argued that the

interference of one language in learning and acquisition of the other is a resultant effect of

negative transfer Taiwo (1999), as cited in Ozoemena, Nwoke and Nwokolo (2021) argued

that the interference of Nigerian languages in English language is commonly seen especially

in phonological articulation. Dulay, Burt and Krashen (2002) viewed interference as

automatic transfer to the habit of the surface structure of the first language onto the structure

of the target language. Lott (1999) held and viewed interference as “errors in the learner’s use

of the second language that can be traced back to the Tiv Language.” Ellis (1999:57), on his

part, referred to interference as “transfer” whom he says is “the impact that the learner’s Tiv

Language exerts over the learning of a second language.” He argued that interference or

transfer is governed by their usage of development in second language learning.

In learning a second language, learners often construct their own in terms of rules

with the use of their Tiv Language knowledge, but only when they believe it will help them

in the learning task to be possible Ellis (1997). To Beebe (2000), it appeared to be much more

difficult for an adult to learn a second language system that is as well learned as the Tiv

Language. He further suggested that in learning a second language, Tiv Language responses

are grafted onto second language responses, and both are to a common set of meaning

responses. Other things being equal, the learner is less fluent in the second language and the

kind of expressions he/she uses in the second language bears tell tale traces of the structure of

the Tiv Language.

Oyewole (2017) argued that the circumstances of learning a second language are like

those of Tiv Language. Sometimes there are interferences and occasionally responses from

one language system will intrude onto speech in the other language. It appears that learning is

not successful when the situations in which the two languages (the Tiv Language and the

second language) are learned and kept as distinct as possible (Kasper 2003). To successfully
learn the second language requires the second language learning process if the structure of the

two languages are distinctly different. Hence, Beard same (2000) suggested that Many of the

difficulties a second language has with the phonology, vocabulary and grammar of the second

language are due to the interference habits from the Tiv Language, the formal elements of the

Tiv Language are used with the context of the second language, resulting in errors and

difficulty in learning the second language as the structures of the language of the Tiv

Language and the second language are different.

2.8 Tiv Language Impact on the use of English Grammar in Second Language

Learning.

At the Grammatical level, the system of the Tiv Language intrudes into that of the

second language because the two are of different models. The term “grammar” has come to

include not only the structure of a language but also aspects of usage and social acceptability

(Sriprabha (2015)). Grammar may also be seen in term which the quality of the knowledge of

a language possessed by a speaker, as inferred from the nature of his utterances. To Wilcox

(2004:37) It may also refer to “… the body of prescriptive statements about usages that are

considered acceptable in a particular language”. According to Akindele & Adegbite (2005),

when considering the problem of Nigerian learners of English, more so, in the use of

grammar, the Tiv Languages of second language Nigerian learners affect the learners in their

use of the cardinal “one” with the indefinite articles “a/an” makes Nigerian second language

learners to translate and transfer the only available form in his/her Tiv Language into English.

Some of the instances of Tiv Language impact explained are due to lack of distinction

between what is obtained in the Tiv Language of the second language learner and what is

obtainable in the standard English.

2.9 Tiv Language impact on the Pronunciation of English Sounds

According to Reddivari (2022) pronunciation is the most challenging aspect of

Indians when communicating in English Language. It is therefore a critical step in making

the learning of English meaningful to second language learners is to first develop in them the

ability to understand and speak English. Sriprabha (2015) held hat typical sound language

learners begin by transferring sounds (phonetic) from their Tiv Language into the target

language. He argued that the Tiv Language disrupts the smoothness of communication of

students in English language. Students with lack of confidence tend to use Tiv Language

instead of proper English.

To Fassanmi (2010), the weak foundation of learners coming from a language policy

is consistent in its operation and implementation or lacks clarity in its provision, creates

confusion because it is often fraught with lapses. Fassanmi (2010) went further to stress that

the Tiv Language of most second language learners and users of English often interferes with

free flow of utterances. Tiv Language, he says, is the language in which the learners has the

facilities and if some of the sounds or materials that constitute the speech of transfer is very

high. Eligbe (2000) observed that since the language in which speakers have pronunciation

expertise and proficiency is the Tiv Language, the case of the Tiv Language interfering and

affecting the use of English sounds by second language learners is very high and visible in

second language learning environment.

According to Akindele & Adegbite (2005), phonic impact suggests the effects of Tiv

Language on the use of the sounds of language. That is, transfer of the sounds of a dominant

language in a speech community to the sounds system of a subordinate or target language.

This can be at intonation levels. At the phonemic level, effect of Tiv Language is

predominant. This is because of the differences between the sounds patterns of the English

language. In this way, second language learners of English in Nigeria for instance obliterate
the distinction in vowel quality between long and short vowel sounds (Taiwo 1999). The

syllable structure of many indigenous languages of a second language learner lack consonant

clusters. As a result, there is always the incidence of the assertion of epenthetic vowel

between a word final syllable consonant and the preceding constant immediately after the

production of a consonant sound (Bamgbose, 2001). Bamgbose (2007, 2011) observed that

Tiv Language of second language learners facilitate the impacts of their Tiv Language in

their inability to pronounce English sounds appropriately. At the level of tone, the fact that

most indigenous languages are tonal being used as Tiv Language by Nigerian second

language learners while English is stress-binned and intonation, creates some problems for

these second language learners in using English sounds as they often transfer the wrong stress

to English words which make them produce wrong sounds (Akindele & Adegbite,2005),

Hence, Elugbe (2000) considered the phonological contests of the English language very

significant and consequently language teachers should sound production occasioned by the

impact of their Tiv Language.

2.10 Tiv Language impact on the Selection and use of Lexical items of English by

Second Language Learners

Blum-Kulka & Levenston (2002) revealed that all second language learners begin by

assuming that for every word in their Tiv Language, there is a single translation equivalent in

the second language. Albert & Obler (2000), claimed that on second language learners’

lexical impact on similar items, there is always incidence of learning difficulties and thus,

more likelihood of performance impact on this point in second language learning which are

more distinct from the Tiv Language as in a complete new and different usage of lexical

items in the language (Bledar 1999). The impact of Tiv Language on the selection and use of

lexical items by second language learners is often regarded as lexical effect of Tiv Language.

This effect takes two different forms. The first form can be traced to linguistic factors while
the second form can be traced to cultural factors. Lexical effects identified linguistically in

second language learning are regarded as errors, whereas, that identified culturally is not so

regarded. More so, when the later expresses the local colour of socially recognised

phenomena (Adegbite 1999).

The lexical effect of Tiv Language on second language learning according to

Adegbite (1999) could be identified under four (4) levels: semantic contrast, semantic

extension, semantic transfer and carriage or load creation (Taiwo, 1999). In the area of

semantic contrast Adegbite (1999), contended that, although some items in the Tiv Language

of second language learners may have equivalent items in English, but they express different

meanings through them. He said that some second language learners who are ignorant of this

often use the wrong items in formal English discourse situation for semantic extension

Adegbite (1999) observed that second language learners are often susceptible to adding

meaning(s) to standard English words as it is obtainable sometimes in their Tiv Language.

Semantic shift involves the re-definition of the characteristic patterns of a word within the

semantic fields so that its central becomes marginalized: second language learners give

different definitions and as a result use a particular word with different meanings (Taiwo &

Akindele, 2000).

The cardinal reason for Tiv Language impact on teaching and learning of English by

second language learners can be comparatively inquired to the sociolinguistic milieu of the

conditions under which English is learned and taught in language classrooms.

Empirical Studies

Lots of studies relating to the impact of Tiv Language on the teaching and learning of

English as a second language have been advancing the course of learning the English

Language appropriately and making use of it correctly as well.

 Bhela (1999:25) studied “Native language impact on learning a second language:

exploratory case studies of native language impact with the target language usage” using

descriptive survey design. The researcher made use of questionnaire instrument for data

collection. There were three (3) respondents in the study as: Spanish speaking 21 years old

female, a Vietnamese speaking 39 years old female, a Cambodian speaking 65 years old

male. The respondents to the questionnaire were analyzed using simple percentage.

The findings showed the difference in the structure of the Tiv Language with the

second language showing a lot of negative impact on the teaching and learning of the second

language. With these impacts often negative and prominent in the phonological system of the

second language. Therefore the researchers recommended that an understanding of the Tiv

Language syntactical structure and the type of errors made in second language as well as the

extent of the learners’ knowledge of the Tiv Language and the second language syntactical

structures will assist the teaching and learning process by allowing an individualized learning

program for each learner. As a limitation, the study by Bhela (1999), however laid emphasis

on the negative impact of Tiv Language on the grammar and syntactic structure of the second

language thereby neglecting the other aspects of the second language.

The present study agreed with the findings of Bhela (1999), Ozoemenena, Nwoke &

Nwokolo (2021) and Raddivari (2022) that the difference in the structure of the Tiv

Language with the second language result showing negative impact on teaching and learning

of second language on the grammar and syntactic structure. The findings of the present study

indicate not only the grammar and syntactic structures but the pronunciation of English

sounds and the lexical items of English by second language learners which were absent

Bhlea et al study.
The present study is therefore, designed to survey the impact of Tiv Language on teaching

and learning of English as a second language in Junior Secondary Schools of Katsina Ala

local government area of Benue state

2.7 Summary

This chapter reviewed language learning and language acquisition and established that

language learning depends on internal factors of the language learner while that of acquisition

depends on external factors and that the presence of the first language in the mind of the

second language learner influences the acquisition of all subsequent languages.

The concept of Tiv Language and English as a second language was reviewed as well.

It was established that the Tiv Language is the first language a person picks up. It is not

learned but acquires. English as a second language revealed that it has been a very significant

segment of communication in Nigeria.

This study also reviewed Tiv Language influence on the learning of English as a

second language. And it was established that the Tiv Language influences in no small

measure the pronunciation of English sounds, syntactic structure, lexical items as well as the

use English grammar.

The review also established that Tiv Language has a great impact on the use of

English grammar in second language as a result of lack of distinction between what is

obtained in the Tiv Language of the second language and what is obtained in Standard

English.

Finally, the review established the impact of pronunciation of sounds of English and

the use of lexical items of English by second language learners’ .It was viewed that since the
language in which speakers have pronunciation expertise and proficiency is the Tiv

Language, its interference will affect the use of English sounds by second language learners.

This could also happen to the use of lexical items. From the above review, it is clear that this

study is necessary in Katsina Ala L G A Benue State. The need for the present study becomes

necessary and hence established.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter describes the procedures in the collection of data for the study. The

chapter therefore, describes the research design, area of study, population, sample and

sampling, instrumentation and validation of the instrument, method of data collection and

method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This study may use a descriptive survey design. According to Jackson (2009)

descriptive survey design is a research where participants answer questions administered

through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers

collect data and describe the responses given. The researchers have adopted the design

because they intend to elicit information in the impact of Tiv Language on the teaching and

learning of English as a second language so as to collect responses in relation to the entire

population.

3.2 Area of Study

 Katsina-Ala Local Government Area lies between latitude 6.5° N and 8.5° S and

longitude 7.47° E and 10°W. It is bounded in the North by Ukum and Logo Local

Government Areas, to the North-east by Takum Local Government Area in Taraba State,

Kwande and Ushongo local government to the South and Southwest respectively and Buruku

local government to the west. The local government lies in the Guinea Savannah vegetation

while the eastern portion consists of undulating hills with shrubs. Annual rainfall ranges

between 159 mm, 180 mm prominent geographical features in the area are River Katsina-Ala,

the Harga Hills of Igneous Rock, River Yooyo, Loko and Lake Aketa.

The Local Government lies within the south Guinea savanna vegetation belt which

consists of tropical grassland with shrubs and deciduous trees, and the topography made of

undulating hills. River Katsina –Ala is one of the most prominent natural features of the

Local Government Area. There are also smaller streams such as Loko, Yooyo and Logo

which are tributaries to river Katsina-Ala, which also provide good drainage system.

Different types of food and cash crops such as yams, rice, cassava, Guinea-corn,

millet. Sugar-cane, beans, soya-beans, pepper, beniseed among others is grown in the Local

Government Area.

Katsina-Ala Local Government has a population of over 400,000 people with about

30% of the population residing in the Township (Upa, 2009). The study was carried out in

Katsina-Ala Local Government Area, which comprises of 51 secondary schools according to

records from Planning, Research and Statistics (PRS) Department, Katsina-Ala Area

Education Office. These secondary schools are located in both the rural and urban areas. The

people speak Tiv which is the predominant Language. Other languages spoken are Etulo and

Igbo who are mostly traders.

3.3 Population
 The population of the study is made up of all Junior Secondary School students in

Katsina-Ala Local Government. Junior Secondary Schools (JSS3) students were chosen for

the study because Tiv language is one of the subjects taken at the Basic Education Certificate

Examination (BECE) which this study covers. The population of JSS 3 students in Katsina-

Ala Local Government is four thousand five hundred and nineteen (4,519) (Planning,

Research and Statistics Department, Benue State, Katsina-Ala Area Education Office, 2022).

The students are of the same age range (11-15 years) and they are all taught English

Language at junior secondary school level.

About 90% of the population in the area is predominantly farmers, remaining 10%

sharing among civil servants, businessmen and women. There are large plantations of yam,

maize, groundnut, guinea corn, soya beans, cassava, sesame, rice and beans, fruit plants such

as citrus, mangoes and oil palms. Does mastication of animals such as pigs, goats, sheep, and

poultry also abound.

There are over 30 Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina-Ala, Some of them are: UBE

Junior Secondary School, Aba Mbahar, UBE Junior Secondary School, Harga, UBE Junior

Secondary School Tor Donga, UBE./LGEA Junior Secondary School, Islamic Katsina Ala,

UBE Junior Secondary school, Ityokyaa, UBE. Junior Secondary School, Ngibo, UBE.

Junior Secondary School, Sai Agirigi, UBE Junior Secondary School Turan, UBE Junior

Secondary School, Wombo Ubaya, UBE Junior Secondary School Utyo, UBE. Junior

Secondary School Kasar City, UBE Junior Secondary School, NKST Katsina Ala, UBE

Junior Secondary School Tatyough, UBE Junior Secondary School, Imunan, UBE Central

Primary School, Katsina Ala, UBE Junior Secondary School Abo Mbasar,UBE Junior

Secondary School, Abaji Kpav among others..

. This study is necessarily carried out in this area, this is because for the past five (5) years

now in Katsina Ala L.G.A., the performances of students in English Language in Junior
Secondary Schools had been very low as a result of the Tiv Language impact. For this reason,

it is deemed necessary for one to carry out a research in this area.

3.4 Sample and Sampling

All the subjects selected for the study were used as sample. A purposive random

sampling procedure was applied to select 160 teachers from the schools selected for the

study. One of the conditions that warranted the purposive random sampling here was that

most schools have a relative small number of English teachers; hence all the English teachers

in the school were used as sample.

The choice of schools within Katsina Ala metropolis was to provide basic statistics in

the area of the study and to reduce the problem of finance and stress in trying to cover all the

schools in Katsina Ala local government area of Benue State.

3.5 Instrumentation

The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire designed on a

four point Likert Scale on the impact of Tiv Language on the Teaching and Learning of

English Language as a Second Language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina- Ala Local

Government Area. The instrument consists of two sections, A and B. A sought for

information on the name of school, section B consisted of 15 items on the impact of Tiv

Language on the teaching and learning of English Language as a second language in Junior

Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala.

3.5.1 Validation of Instrument

After the questionnaire was constructed it was given to two experts in English

Education, in the Department of English and Literary Studies, College of Education, Katsina

Ala. The instrument was subjected to both face and content validity.
 The experts’ pieces of advice were sought in terms of scope or coverage, relevance,

structure, ambiguity in vagueness of expression. After the validation, the instrument was

given to my supervisor for explicit, scrutiny and corrections before administration.

3.5.2 Method of Data Collection

The researchers visited 30 Junior Secondary Schools personally and data were

collected through the questionnaire. One hour was given for answering/filling and retrieval of

the questionnaires. These enhanced the subjects to provide object information for the study.

One hundred and sixty (160) copies of questionnaires were administered on the 160 English

teachers. Out of this160 copies, 144 copies were returned representing 90% while 16 copies

were lost representing 10%.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data collected were analyzed with respect to the research questions and hypotheses

formulated for the study. Descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation was used to

answer all the research questions. To determine the mean, normal values were assigned to the

respond categories thus:

Strongly Agree (SA) 4 points

Agree (A) 3 points

Disagree (D) 2 points

Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 point

Given as mean (X) = EFX

N
Where E = Summation

F = Frequency

X = Respond category

The mean is interpreted by a cut-off obtained by adding the weighing of the respond

categories and dividing by the number as follows:

 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 2.5
4
A clearance limit was introduced by the researchers so that any respond value of 2.50

and above is considered as agreed and any value below 2.50 is considered as disagreed.

The hypotheses were analyzed using the chi- square (F12) at 0.05 level of

significance. The null hypotheses were rejected and alternative hypotheses upheld if the

calculated (X2) exceeded the critical or the table value. But if the reverse was the case the null

hypotheses were not rejected.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF

FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the data presentation and discussion of findings.

4.2 Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation

Research Question 1

In what ways does the Tiv Language affects the pronunciation of English by the

learners at the secondary school level?

The collected opinions of respondents from questionnaire item one, two, three, four

and five (1, 2, 3, 4 & 5) are presented in table 2.

Table 1: Mean scores of English teachers on the impact of Tiv Language on the

pronunciation of English sounds.

S/N

ITEM DESCRIPTION SA A D SD MEAN DECISION

1. Impact of Tiv Language 95 34 11 04 3.52 Agree

is prominent in the area of English sounds.

2. Tiv Language affects 101 35 08 00 3.65 Agree

the L2 learners’ patterns

of English sounds.

3. Tiv Language affects 99 37 05 02 3.60 Agree

the way second language

learners speak English.

4. Tiv Language affects the 98 36 05 05 3.57 Agree

 pronunciation of the English

sounds by the second language

learners.

5. Tiv Language affects second 93 40 08 03 3.54 Agree

language learners’ interpretation

of meaningful sentences.

Cluster mean =3.57 i.e. Agree

Research Question 1: Data presented in Table 1 showed that the respondents agreed on

the items 1,2,3,4 & 5 with a mean rating of 3.52, 3.65, 3.60, 3.57 and 3.54 respectively. The

mean scores are above the cut-off point of 2.50 which implies that Tiv Language has impact

in the area of English sounds, patterns of English sounds, the way the second language

learners speak, in pronunciation of English sounds and in the learners’ interpretation of

English sounds and in the learners’ interpretation of meaningful sentences.

This is also supported by the cluster mean of 3.57 which clearly shows that Tiv

Language affects the pronunciation of English sounds by the learners at the Junior Secondary

School level.

Research Question 2

In what ways does the Tiv Language affect the use of grammar by learners at the

Junior Secondary School Level?

Data for examining this research question were derived from questionnaire items six,

seven, eight, nine and ten (6, 7, 8, 9, & 10).

Table 2: Mean scores of English Teachers on Tiv Language impact on the use of

grammar.

S/N
ITEM DESCRIPTION SA A D SD MEAN DECISION
6. The use of Tiv Language in 80 44 12 08 3.36
Agree
translation affects second
language learners of English.
7. The Tiv Language affects
second language learners’ 84 42 13 05 3.42 Agree
construction of correct
sentences.

8. Tiv Language affects the

second language learners 46 74 14 10 3.08 Agree
understanding in selection
of word class.

9. Tiv Language affects

second language learners’ 07 12 53 72 1.68 Disagree
writing.

10. Use of Tiv Language

does not encourage second

language learners’ understanding 69 52 14 09 3.25 Agree

of syntactic structure.

Cluster mean 2.95 i.e. Agree.

Research Question 2: Presented in table 2 shows that the respondents agree on the items 6,

7, 8, and 10, but disagree with item 9 with the mean of 3.36, 3.42, 3.08, 3.25 and 1.68.
 The mean scores of items 6, 7, 8, and 10 are above the cut-off point 2.50 which

implies that Tiv Language affects the translation of second language learners of English

construction of correct sentences but does not encourage second language learners’

understanding of syntactic structure.

The mean score of item 9 implies that Tiv Language does not affect second language

learners’ writing. In summary, the cluster means of 2.95 shows that Tiv Language has impact

on the use of grammar.

Research Question 3

To what extent does the Tiv Language affect the use of lexical items?

Data for examining this research question were derived from questionnaire items

eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen and fifteen (11, 12, 13, 14, &15). The results of the

responses are shown in table 3.

Table 3. Mean scores of English teachers on how Tiv Language affects the use of lexical

items on the use of grammar.

S/

N ITEM DESCRIPTION SA A D SD MEAN DECISION

11. The Tiv Language positively 91 33 14 06 3.45 Agree

affects the students’ learning

of English language.

12. The Tiv Language affects the

students’ selection of lexical items 39 94 08 03 3.17 Agree

in English language.

13. The Tiv Language has an impact

on students’ use of lexical items 49 92 02 01 3.31 Agree

 in English.

14. Tiv Language has an impact on the

students’ interpretation of lexical items 51 82 07 04 3.25 Agree

in English language.

15. Tiv Language negatively affects

students’ learning of English language 102 28 11 02 3.61 Agree

and understanding of syntactic structures

Cluster mean 3.35 i.e. Agree.
Table 3: indicates that the respondents agree on items 11, 12, 13, 14, & 15 with a

mean rating of 3.45, 3.17, 3.31, 3.25 and 3.61 respectively.

The mean scores are above the cut- off point of 2.50 which implies that Tiv Language

positively affects the students’ learning of English language, selection of lexical items, and

use of lexical items. Interpretation of lexical items negatively affects students’ learning of

English language.

This is also supported with the cluster mean of 3.35 which clearly showed that Tiv

Language affects the use of lexical items.

4.3 Testing of Hypotheses

Hypothesis one: There is no significant effect of the Tiv Language on the pronunciation of

English sounds by Junior Secondary School learners of English language.

Table 4:
Variance Opinion Expected D.F Critical
Observed Frequency N-1 Value
Frequency
Teachers S/Agree 486 97.2 4-1=3 35.9
Agree 182 36.4
Disagree 37 7.4
S/Disagree 14 2.8
TOTAL 143.8 Rejected
P<0.05, df=3, critical X² 7.81
On table 4, the calculated X² of 35.9 is greater than the critical X² of 7.81 and of 0.00 is less

than 0.05, therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. This implies that the impact of Tiv Language

has significant effects on the pronunciation of English sounds.

Hypothesis Two: Tiv Language has no significant effect on the use of grammar by

Junior Secondary School learners of English language.

Table 5:

Variance Opinion Expected D.F Critical

Observed Frequency N-1 Value

Frequency

Teachers S/Agree 286 57.2 4–1=3 36

Agree 224 44.8

Disagree 106 21.8

S/Disagree 104 20.8

TOTAL 144.6 Rejected

P<0.05, df=3, Critical X² 7.81

On table 5, the calculated X² of 36 is greater than the critical value 7.81. Therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected and the alternative accepted. This implies that Tiv Language impacts

on the use of grammar.

Hypothesis Three: Tiv Language has no significant impact on the use of lexical items of

English as a second language.

Table 6:

Variance Opinion Expected D.F Critical

 Observed Frequency N-1 Value
Frequency

Teachers S/Agree 333 66.6 4-1=3 36

Agree 329 65.8

Disagree 42 84

S/Disagree 16 3.2

TOTAL 219.6 Rejected

P<0.05, df=3, Critical X² 7.81

On table 6, the calculated X² of 36 is greater than the critical value of 7.81, therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected and the alternative acceptance. This implies that Tiv Language affects

the use of lexical items.

4 .5 Discussion of Findings

This study investigated the impact of Tiv Language on the teaching and learning of English

as a second language. The result obtained from the descriptive statistic of mean and standard

deviation of research Question One showed that Tiv Language affects the pronunciation of

English sound by second language learners to a greater extent. The researchers found that the

impact of Tiv Language is more visible and noticeable in the pronunciation of English sounds

and during the process of speech by second language learners. This finding lends credence to

the opinion of Elugbe (2000) who observed that since the language in which speakers have

pronunciation expertise and proficiency is the Tiv Language, the case of the Tiv Language

interfering and affecting the use of the English sounds by the second language learners is

very visible in second language learning environment.

Analysis of research Question Two showed that the Tiv Language has a strong impact

on the second language learners’ use of English grammar. The result from this analysis lends

credence to the assertion of Wilcox (2004), Akindele and Adegbite (2006) that when
considering the problem of Nigerian learners of English in terms of their using the simple

grammar, the issues of retroactive interference of their Tiv Language (MT) with the second

language forms a major basis. This also supports Bhela’s (2000) opinion that second

language learners found the use of grammatical structure of the English language difficult,

owing to the nature of their Tiv Language.

The findings from the analysis of research Question Three showed that the Tiv

Language has an impact on the selection and use of lexical items of English. This finding

supports the view of Blum Kulka and Levension (2002) who contended that all second

language learners begin by assuming that for every word in their Tiv Language, there is

single translation equivalent in the second language. This finding also agrees with Taiwo and

Akindele (2000) who reported that second language learners give different definitions to

words and as a result use a single word to refer to a particular word with different meanings.

Furthermore, the result obtained from the testing of Hypothesis One showed that the

Tiv Language has a significant impact on the Junior Secondary School learners’

pronunciation of sounds of English as a second language. Since the calculated x 2 of 35.9 is

greater than the critical x 2 of 7.81 and the probability value of 000 is less than 0:05. The

result confirms the view of Macintyre (1999) that typical second language learners begin by

transferring sounds of their Tiv Language to that of the English language.

This also supports the assertion of Akindele and Adegbite (2005) that phonic

interference suggests that at the level of tone, most indigenous languages are tonal being used

as Tiv Language by Nigeria second language learners in learning and using English sounds as

they often transfer the wrong stress to English words which makes them produce wrong

sounds. Bamgbose (2007) observed that the Tiv Language in their inability to pronounce

English sounds appropriately. This finding therefore, suggests that the Tiv Language has a

strong impact on the pronunciation of English as a second language result obtained from
testing of Hypothesis Two showed that Tiv Language has a significant impact on second

language learners’ use of English grammar like the secondary school learners of English.

Since the calculated x2 of 36 is greater than the critical value of 7.81 this findings

substantiates Ellis’ (1997) claimed that in some instances, an absent Tiv Language structure

such as the apostrophe and the active and passive vowels cause some level of difficulty for

the learners in a second language situation as they are unfamiliar with its use in the second

language, resulting in errors which reflects a gap in the learners knowledge of the use of

grammar. This therefore, suggests that there is indeed a conspicuous significant impact of the

Tiv Language on second language learners’ use of English grammar.

More so, the findings of the testing of Hypothesis Three showed that the Tiv

Language indeed has a significant impact on the use of lexical items of English as a second

language by learners since the calculation x 2 of 36 is greater than the critical value of 7.81

therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. The findings support Bhela (1999), Sriprabha(2015)

and Raddivari (2022) who declared that there is always the incidence of learning difficulties

among second language learners of the English as they tend to wrongly pick lexical items

directly from their Tiv Language and infusing them into the English language. This finding

therefore, suggests that Tiv Language has significant impact on the use of lexical items by

Junior Secondary School learners of English language.

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION AND SUGGESTION

5.1 Introduction

This being the last chapter, the researcher has endeavoured to give a summary of the

research work, drawn conclusions and made necessary recommendations and suggestions for

further studies.

5.2 Summary

The study investigated the impact of the Tiv Language on teaching and learning of

English as second language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala L G A of Benue

state. To carry out the study, three (3) research, questions and hypotheses were raised and a

careful review of the relevant related literature was carried out to guide the study. The study

adopted a descriptive survey design. The population of the study was the 160 English

teachers drawn from the 30 schools in the study area. A questionnaire was raised to enable

the researchers draw sample from the field. The study adopted simple percentages, mean and

standard deviation to answer the research questions which chi-square test of goodness of fit

was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the findings were

thus:

1. Tiv Language has significant effect on pronunciation of English sounds.

2. Tiv Language has significant effect on the use of lexical items.

3. Tiv Language has significant effect on the use of grammar.

5.3 Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, it is concluded that Tiv Language has significant

effect on the pronunciation of English sounds, the use of lexical items and the use of English

grammar in Junior Secondary Schools in the study area.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

It is a surmise that the poor performance of most students in English language as well

as wrong use of English items in grammar, lexicons, and the poor manner learners speak in

English language can be drawn to the effect of the Tiv Language on their learning of English

as a second language.

By the findings of this study, these recommendations have been offered:

1. The Tiv Language should be used as a language to prepare

second language learners at the initial and primary stage of learning the language and

not be used as a medium of instruction at the higher level of education, as its been

practiced by some language teachers.

2. Second language teachers should endeavour to give priority attention to the

development of oral language competence. Learners should be helped to understand

and speak the language first before reading and writing are introduced. That is, the

basic sounds and structures of the second language like English should be cautiously

taught.

3. If the second language learner is guided while studying in learning the English

language, an understanding of the syntactical structure of the Tiv Language and the

type of errors made in the second language as well as the extent of the learner’s

knowledge of the Tiv Language and the syntactical structure of the second language

will assist the teaching process by allowing an individualized learning programme for

each other.

4. Although grammar-translation method is sometimes used by language teachers during

the second language classroom learning, however, the direct method should be

adopted and used to replace the grammar-translation method so that second language
 learners would be exposed to the nature of the English language and hence, immerse

them in its usage.

5. Second language teachers should endeavour to discover the numerous differences

between the structures of the English language and that of Nigerian indigenous

languages, and by so doing, enable the learners as well to discover these differences

and thus, encourage the learners to be open to using the English language

appropriately.

6. Second language learning seminars and workshops should be appropriately organized

so as to equip second language teachers with the requisite skills that would enable

them impact knowledge of the second language into the learners and hence, adopt

techniques that best suit the teaching and learning of a second language.

7 Over reliance on the structures of the Tiv Language by second language learners:

Endeavour to encourage and guide the learners against their over reliance on the

structures of their Tiv Language.

5.5 Limitations

In the course of this research, the researchers encountered some difficulties to the

success of this study. Prominent among these problems were: lack of financial resources by

the researchers to reach some of the rural schools within the study area as well as the lack of

attention by some respondents.

5.6 Suggestions for Further Study

(i) The effects of Tiv Language on the learning of the phonology of English as a second

language

(ii) Contrastive teaching: A contrast between Tiv Language acquisition and second

language learning.
(iii) Native language interference in the learning of the syntactical structures and semantic

interpretations of a second language.

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APPENDIX

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION,

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, KATSINA ALA
IN AFFILIATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR

Sir/Madam,

This is a Research Questionnaire on the impact of Tiv Language on teaching and

learning of English as a second language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala Local

Government Area of Benue State.

 The researcher is an undergraduate student of the Department of Arts Education,

College Education, Katsina Ala in Affiliation with the University of Calabar, Calabar Cross

River State. I am currently undertaking a B.A.(Ed) English project on “Impact of Tiv

Language on Teaching and Learning of English as a Second Language in Junior

Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala Local Government Area of Benue State”.

You are kindly requested to make frank responses to issues raised in the questionnaire by

marking a tick (√) where appropriate. The responses which will be used purely for academic

purposes will be held in strict confidence.

Thanks you for cooperation.

Yours faithful,

David Didoo

QUESTIONNAIRE

The Impact of Tiv Language on Teaching and Learning of English as a Second

Language in Junior Secondary Schools in Katsina Ala Local Government Area, Benue

State.

The aim of this study is to identify the impact of Tiv Language on teaching and learning of

English as a second language in junior secondary schools in Katsina Ala local government

area, Benue state.

Name of school …………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………

INSTRUCTION
Please, mark (√) in the space provided for the option which best represents your view on
issue(s) raised below:
SECTION A: BIO DATA

1. STATUS

(i) Principal

(ii) Teacher

(iii) LGEA official

(iv) SUBEB official

2. GENDER

(i) Male

(ii) Female

3. LOCATION

(i) Urban

(ii) Rural

4. SCHOOL TYPE

(i) Private

(ii) State owned

(iii) Federal Government owned

5. AGE

(i) 23-27 years old

(ii) 28-32 years old

(iii) 33-37 years old

(iv) 38 years and above

6. HIGHEST ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION

(i) Ph.D

(ii) MA/[Link]/[Link]
 (iii) BA/[Link]/[Link]

(iv) NCE

(v) GRADE II

7. YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE

(i) 1-5 years

(ii) 6-10 years

(iii) 11-15 years

(iv) 16-20 years

(v) 25 years and above

SECTION B:

This is about the impact of Tiv Language on teaching and learning of English in areas of

pronunciation, grammar and lexical items.

INSTRUCTIONS: Please, respond to the following statements by ticking (√) in the

column/row which best suits your opinion. Do not mark more than one (√) on each statement.

They are:

Strongly Agree (SA) 4 points

Agree (A) 3 points

Disagree (D) 2 points

Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 point

Item No Item Description SA A D SD

Cluster A Tiv Language significantly influence on the
pronunciation of English sounds.
 1. Tiv Language influence is prominent in
the area of English sounds.

2. Tiv Language affects the second language

learners’ pattern of English sounds.
3.
Tiv Language affects the way the second
language learners speak.

4. Tiv Language affects the pronunciation of

English sounds by the second language
learners.

5. Tiv Language influences second language

learners’ interpretation of meaningful
sentences.

Tiv Language influence on the use of

Cluster B grammar
6. The use of Tiv Language in translation
affects second language learners of
English.

7. The Tiv Language influences second

language learners’ construction of correct
sentences.
8. Tiv Language influences the second
language learners’ understanding in
selection of word classes.

9. Tiv Language influences the second

language learners’ writing.
10. Use of Tiv Language does not encourage
second language learners’ understanding
of syntactical structures.

Cluster C Tiv Language influences the use of lexical

items.

11. The Tiv Language positively influences the

learners’ learning of English language.
12.
The Tiv Language influences the learners’
selection of lexical items in English
language.
13.
The Tiv Language has an influence on
learners’ use of lexical items in English
14. language.
Tiv Language has an influence on the
learners’ interpretation of lexical items in
English language.

15. Tiv Language negatively influences

learners’ learning of English Language.
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