Electromagnetic Fields

Review: Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

In the static regime, electromagnetic quantities do not vary as a
function of time. We have two main cases:

ELECTROSTATICS – The electric charges do not change

postion in time. Therefore, ρ, E and D are constant and there is no
magnetic field H, since there is no current density J.

MAGNETOSTATICS – The charge crossing a given cross-

section (current) does not vary in time. Therefore, J, H and B are
constant. Although charges are moving, the steady current
maintains a constant charge density ρ in space and the electric
field E is static.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The equations of electrostatics are obtained directly from Maxwell’s

equations, by assuming that ∂/∂t , J, H and B are all zero:

G
∇× E = 0
G
∇⋅ D= 0
G G
D=ε E

The electrostatic force is simply

G G
F=qE

We also define the electrostatic potential φ by the relationship

G
E = −∇φ

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The electrostatic potential φ is a scalar function of space. From

vector calculus we know that
∇ × ∇φ = 0
This potential is very convenient for practical applications because
it is a scalar quantity. The potential automatically satisfies
Maxwell’s curl equation for the electric field, since
G
∇ × E = −∇ × ∇φ = 0
From a physical point of view, the electrostatic potential provides
an immediate way to express the work W performed by moving a
charge from location a to location b:
b G G
∫
W = − F⋅d l
a
Here, l is the coordinate along the path. The negative sign indicates
that the work is done against the electrical force.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

By introducing the electrostatic potential, we obtain

b G G b G
a ∫ a ∫ [ ]
W = − q E ⋅ dl = q ∇φ ⋅ dl = q φ ( b ) − φ ( a ) = q δφ

NOTE: The line integral of a gradient does not depend on the path
of integration but only on the potential at the end points of the path.

The electrostatic potential is measured with respect to an arbitrary

reference value. We can assume for most problems that a
convenient reference is a zero potential at an infinite distance. In
the result above for the electrostatic work, we could set a zero
potential at the initial point of the path, so that φ(a)=0. Either
choice of potential reference would give the same potential
difference δφ.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

It is quite convenient to express also the divergence equation in

terms of the electrostatic potential. If we assume a uniform material
medium:
G G
∇ ⋅ D = ε ∇ ⋅ E = −ε ∇ ⋅ ∇φ = −ε ∇ 2 φ = ρ

This result yields the well known Poisson equation

2 ρ
∇ φ=−
ε

In the case of ρ = 0, we have the classic Laplace equation

∇ 2φ = 0

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 Electromagnetic Fields

If the problem involves a non-uniform medium with varying

dielectric permittivity, a more general form of Poisson equation
must be used

∇ ⋅ ( ε ∇φ ) = −ρ

Another important equation is obtained by integrating the

divergence over a certain volume V
G
∫V ∇ ⋅ D dV = ∫ ρ dV
V

Gauss theorem allows us to transform the volume integral of the

divergence into a surface integral of the flux
G G G
∫V ∇ ⋅ D dV = ∫ D ⋅ dS
S
Component normal
to the surface

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The volume integral of the charge density is simply the total charge
Q contained inside the volume
∫V ρ dV = Q
The final result is the integral form of Poisson equation, known as
Gauss law:
G G
∫S D ⋅ dS = Q

Most electrostatic problems can be solved by direct application of

Poisson equation or of Gauss law.

Analytical solutions are usually possible only for simplified

geometries and charge distributions, and numerical solutions are
necessary for most general problems.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The Gauss law provides a direct way to determine the force

between charges. Let's consider a sphere with radius r surround-
ing a charge Q1 located at the center. The displacement vector will
be uniform and radially directed, anywhere on the sphere surface,
so that
G G 2 G
∫S D ⋅ dS = 4π r D = Q1
Assuming a uniform isotropic medium, we have a radial electric
field with strength
G
G D Q1
E(r) = =
ε 4 π ε r2
If a second charge Q2 is placed at distance r from Q1 the mutual
force has strength
G G Q1 Q2
F = Q2 E ( r ) =
4 π ε r2

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The electrostatic potential due to a charge Q can be obtained using

the previous result for the electrostatic work:
b G b Q
φ ( b ) = φ ( a ) − E dr = φ ( a ) −
∫ ∫ dr
a a 4 π ε r2

Q 1 1
= φ ( a) + r − r 
4πε  b a

where r indicates the distance of the observation point b from the

charge location, and a is a reference point. If we chose the
reference point a → ∞ , with a reference potential φ(a) = 0, we can
express the potential at distance r from the charge Q as

Q
φ( r) =
4πεr

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The potential φ indicates then the work necessary to move an

infinitesimal positive probe charge from distance r (point b) to
infinity (point a) for negative Q, or conversely to move the probe
from infinity to distance r for positive Q (remember that the work is
done against the field). The probe charge should be infinitesimal,
not to perturb the potential established by the charge Q.

The work per unit charge done by the fields to move a probe charge
between two points, is usually called Electromotive Force ( emf ).
Dimensionally, the emf really represents work rather than an actual
force.

The work per unit charge done against the fields represents the
voltage Vba between the two points, so that:

bG G
∫
emf = E ⋅ d l = −Vba
a

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In electrostatics, there is no difference between voltage and

potential. To summarize once again, using formulas, we have

Potential at point “ a ” Potential at point “ b ”

a G G b G G
φa = − E ⋅ d l
∞ ∫ ∫
φb = − E ⋅ d l
∞

Potential difference or Voltage between “ a ” and “ b

bG G
( φ b − φ a ) = Vba = − a E ⋅ d l = − e. m. f .
∫

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In the case of more than one point charge, the separate potentials
due to each charge can be added to obtain the total potential

1 Qi
φ ( x, y, z ) = ∑
4 π ε i ri

If the charge is distributed in space with a density ρ(x,y,z), one

needs to integrate over the volume as

1 ρ ( x ', y', z ' )

φ ( x, y, z ) = ∫ dV
4πε V r

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In the magnetostatic regime, there are steady currents in the

system under consideration, which generate magnetic fields (we
ignore at this point the case of ferromagnetic media). The full set of
Maxwell's equations is considered (setting ∂/∂t = 0 )
G
∇× E = 0
G G
∇× H = J
G
∇⋅ D= ρ
G
∇⋅B= 0
G G
D=ε E
G G
B=µ H

with the complete Lorentz force

G G G G
F = q ( E + v × B)

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 Electromagnetic Fields

It is desirable to find also for the magnetic field a potential function.

However, note that such a potential cannot be a scalar, as we found
for the electrostatic field, since
G G
∇× H = J

Current density is a vector ≠ 0

We define a magnetic vector potential A through the relation

G G G
∇× A= B = µ H
This definition automatically satisfies the condition of zero
divergence for the induction field, since
G G
∇ ⋅ B = ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A) = 0
The divergence of a curl is always = 0

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The vector potential can be introduced in the curl equation for the
magnetic field
G 1 G 1 G 1 G 2G G
∇ × H = ∇ × B = ∇ × ( ∇ × A) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A) − ∇ A = J
µ µ µ

However, in order to completely specify the magnetic vector

potential, we need to specify also its divergence. First, we observe
that the definition of the vector potential is not unique since:

G G G G
∇ × A' = ∇ × ( A + ∇ψ ) = ∇ × A + ∇ × ( ∇ψ ) = ∇ × A

ψ = Scalar function Always = 0

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In the magnetostatic case it is sufficient to specify (in physics

terminology: to choose the gauge)
G
∇⋅ A= 0
so that
G G G G
∇ ⋅ A = ∇ ⋅ ( A + ∇ψ ) = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ ⋅ ∇ψ = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ 2ψ = 0

We simply need to make sure that the arbitrary function ψ satisfies

∇ 2ψ = 0
We can then simplify the previous result for the curl equation to

2G G
∇ A = −µ J

the magnetic equivalent of the electrostatic Poisson equation.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The general solution of this vector Laplacian equation is given by

G
G µ J ( x ', y', z ' )
A ( x, y, z ) = ∫ dV
4π V r
which is similar to the formal solution obtained before for the
electrostatic potential for a distributed charge. If the current is
confined to a wire with cross-sectional area S and described by a
curvilinear coordinate l, we can write
G G G G G
I = I = J⋅S dV = S ⋅ dl

with a final result

G
G µ I dl
A ( x, y, z ) =
4 π ∫l r
(note that the total current I is constant at any wire location).

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The solution for the magnetic field obtained from the vector
potential leads to the famous Biot-Savart law:
G G G
G B 1 G  I dl  I dl
H = = ∇× A= ∇×
µ µ ∫  =
4π l r  4π l
∫ ∇×
r
G
I  1 G I dl × iˆr
=− ∫  ∇  × dl =
4 π l r  4 π ∫l r 2

dl

r
ir
I
(x,y,z)

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The magnetic field can also be determined by direct integration of

the curl equation over a surface
G G G G
∫S ∇ × H ⋅ dS = ∫ J ⋅ dS = I
S

Stoke's theorem can be used to transform the left hand side of the
equation, to obtain the integral form of Ampere's law

G G
∫l H ⋅ dl = I

In many applications it is useful to determine the magnetic flux

through a given surface. The vector potential can be used to
modify a surface integral into a line integral, using again
Stoke's theorem
G G G G G
Magnetic Flux = ∫S B ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ × A ⋅ dS = ∫ A ⋅ dl
S l

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