Communicative Language Teaching: Unity
within Diversity (Simplified Version)
By Pham Hoa Hiep (2007)
Published in ELT Journal, Vol. 61, Issue 3
Introduction
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is one of the most well-known methods in English
language teaching. It became popular around the world because it focuses on communication
and real-life use of language, not just grammar and memorization.
However, in recent years, teachers and researchers have started to question how well CLT
works in different countries and cultures. Some people say CLT is a Western idea that does
not fit Asian or non-English-speaking contexts. Others say it can work everywhere if it is
adapted properly.
In this paper, I (Pham Hoa Hiep) look at both the theory and the practice of CLT. I focus on how
CLT works in Vietnam, a country with very different educational traditions from the West. I argue
that CLT is not a fixed method but a flexible approach that teachers can shape according to
their local situation.
Background of the Debate
In the early 2000s, several scholars argued about whether CLT should continue to be used.
● Bax (2003) said that CLT should be abandoned because it ignores the context of
teaching — things like culture, classroom conditions, and student needs.
● Liao (2004) disagreed, saying that CLT is still the best method for teaching English.
I believe both views are partly right. CLT has strong ideas, but it must be contextualized —
meaning that it needs to be changed to fit each classroom’s needs.
Theoretical Background of CLT
CLT developed as a reaction to old methods like the Grammar Translation Method and the
Audio-lingual Method, which focused mainly on grammar and repetition. CLT instead focuses
on using language for real communication.
1. Hymes (1972) – Communicative Competence
Hymes said that knowing a language is not just about grammar — it’s also about knowing
when, where, and how to use it. This ability is called communicative competence.
2. Canale and Swain (1980) – Four Parts of Communicative Competence
They divided communicative competence into four types:
1. Grammatical competence: Knowing grammar and vocabulary correctly.
2. Sociolinguistic competence: Using language in socially appropriate ways.
3. Discourse competence: Connecting sentences and ideas smoothly in speech or
writing.
4. Strategic competence: Using strategies to solve communication problems, like
rephrasing or asking for clarification.
3. Breen and Candlin (1980)
They said classrooms should act like mini societies where learners use language to
communicate with each other, not just repeat what the teacher says.
4. Savignon (2002) – Communicative Curriculum
Savignon expanded the idea of CLT and said a good communicative curriculum has five parts:
1. Language arts: Focus on form, grammar, and accuracy.
2. Language for a purpose: Using language to achieve real-life goals.
3. Personal English use: Letting learners express themselves and their identity.
4. Theatre arts: Using role plays and interpretation to practice communication.
5. Beyond the classroom: Preparing students for real communication outside school.
These ideas show that CLT is more about principles and values than about one single
technique.
The Practice of CLT
In Western countries, CLT usually means:
● Pair or group work
● Student-centered learning
● Real-life communicative activities
● Use of authentic materials (like newspapers, ads, and interviews)
But in non-Western countries such as Vietnam, the classroom situation is very different.
Students often:
● Share the same mother tongue (so they use it instead of English)
● Learn English only for exams
● Sit in large classes with many students
● Expect the teacher to lead everything
● Rarely use English outside the classroom
Because of this, many teachers find it hard to use CLT exactly the way Western teachers do. As
a result, CLT must be adjusted to fit the local context.
CLT in Vietnam: A Case Study
In my study, I interviewed three Vietnamese teachers of English — I will call them Xuan, Thao,
and Lien. They all work at a Vietnamese university and have been trained in CLT.
Teachers’ Beliefs
All three teachers believed CLT is better than old grammar-based teaching because:
● It helps students communicate in English, not just memorize rules.
● It makes learning more interesting and meaningful.
● It helps students become more confident using English.
They all wanted to create a classroom that was friendly, communicative, and
student-centered.
Classroom Reality
However, when I observed their classes, I found that they faced many difficulties:
1. Students kept using Vietnamese during pair or group work.
2. The exam system tested grammar and writing, not communication.
3. Students felt shy or unsure about speaking English.
4. Teachers were expected to have full authority in class, so students hesitated to speak
freely.
5. Large classes made interactive tasks difficult.
Despite these problems, teachers still tried to apply CLT ideas. For example:
● Xuan used Vietnamese newspapers for discussions.
● Thao let students discuss in Vietnamese first, then present in English.
● Lien used role plays and group presentations.
Even when results were not perfect, these teachers showed strong effort and reflection — they
were trying to make CLT fit their environment.
Discussion
The findings show that:
● CLT is accepted in theory by teachers in Vietnam.
● But it is hard to apply fully because of exams, large classes, and cultural habits.
● Teachers often need to balance between traditional and communicative methods.
Instead of seeing this as a “failure,” we should understand it as a local version of CLT.
Teaching methods should never be imported blindly from one country to another. Every context
has its own challenges, traditions, and resources.
The Need for Contextualization
Many Asian teachers feel pressured to follow the Western model of CLT exactly. But CLT should
not be seen as a set of fixed techniques — it is an approach that focuses on communication,
meaning, and learner needs.
Each teacher should be able to interpret CLT freely based on what works in their classroom.
For example:
● In a small Western class, role-play and pair work may be easy.
● In a large Vietnamese class, maybe translation tasks, group reading, or bilingual
discussion work better.
This flexibility keeps the spirit of CLT alive while respecting local conditions.
Conclusion
CLT has changed English language teaching around the world. Its focus on meaningful
communication is valuable everywhere. However, teachers must remember that CLT is not a
fixed formula. It should be adapted, not copied.
In Vietnam and similar contexts, teachers can keep the core ideas of CLT — like interaction,
student participation, and real-life communication — but modify the techniques to fit cultural and
institutional realities.
Teachers, researchers, and policymakers should work together to help teachers develop their
own local versions of CLT. In this way, CLT can truly achieve “unity within diversity.”
CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) focuses on teaching English through real
communication rather than grammar drills.
● It promotes fluency, interaction, and authentic use of language.
● The goal is to make learners communicatively competent, not just grammatically
accurate
uCommunicative competence
Communicative competence is the ability to use a language effectively and appropriately in
real-life situations. It goes beyond knowing grammar or vocabulary; it means being able to
express ideas, understand others, and achieve communication goals. Canale and Swain
divided communicative competence into four main components: grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse, and strategic competence.
Grammatical competence is the ability to use correct grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation,
and sentence structures. For example, a student who wants to order food at a restaurant can
say, “I would like a chicken sandwich, please,” using correct grammar and polite phrasing.
Another example: writing an email to a teacher with proper sentence structure, punctuation, and
spelling shows grammatical competence.
Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to use language appropriately in different social
contexts, considering relationships, culture, and politeness. For instance, a student greeting a
professor might say, “Good morning, Sir,” while greeting a close friend might just be “Hey, what’s
up?” Similarly, in Bangladesh, asking for directions to a shop politely with “Excuse me, could you
help me find this place?” shows sociolinguistic awareness, while saying “Where is this?” may
sound rude in some contexts.
Discourse competence is the ability to connect ideas logically and make speech or writing
coherent. For example, when giving a presentation, a student might organize it by saying:
“First, I will explain the background; then, I will show the results; finally, I will summarize the
findings.” In conversation, asking follow-up questions like “Why do you think that?” or “Can you
explain more?” shows that the speaker can maintain a meaningful flow in dialogue.
Strategic competence is the ability to overcome communication problems using
strategies. For instance, if someone forgets the English word “umbrella,” they might say, “It’s
the thing you use when it rains to stay dry,” using description instead of the exact word. Another
example is asking for clarification: “Could you repeat that, please?” or “I’m not sure I
understand—can you explain differenly?” These strategies help keep communication going
even when difficulties arise.
Bangladeshi context on clt
In Bangladesh, traditional teaching methods like grammar-translation and lecture-based
approaches have been widely used for decades. These methods focus on memorizing grammar
rules, vocabulary, and reading comprehension, with the teacher acting as the central authority in
the classroom. Traditional teaching is often considered appropriate because most students
study English primarily to pass exams like SSC, HSC, or university tests, which mainly evaluate
writing and grammar rather than speaking. Large class sizes, often with 50–100 students, make
interactive methods such as pair work or group discussions difficult to implement. Many
students also have limited exposure to English outside the classroom, so they are less
motivated to speak in English. For example, in a Dhaka college classroom, students may be
able to write a grammatically correct essay but feel nervous or unsure when asked to speak
about their hobbies or daily routines in English. In this context, focusing on grammar and
reading exercises provides a structured way for students to succeed in exams.
On the other hand, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) focuses on practical use of
English in real-life situations. Students are encouraged to speak, listen, and interact through
activities such as role-plays, discussions, and problem-solving tasks. CLT helps students
develop fluency, confidence, and the ability to use English for real purposes, which is
important for careers in international companies, NGOs, tourism, or higher education abroad.
For instance, in a private English-medium school in Chittagong, teachers may ask students to
simulate ordering food at a restaurant or giving directions in English. These activities encourage
students to communicate actively rather than just memorize sentences. However, implementing
CLT in Bangladesh has challenges. Students may feel shy or hesitant, especially in large
classrooms, and often default to speaking Bangla when working in pairs or groups. Teachers
may also struggle to adapt Western CLT methods to local conditions. For example, during a
pair activity in a Dhaka university class, students might sit together but speak in Bangla because
they feel more comfortable, even if the teacher encourages them to speak English.
In conclusion, the appropriateness of traditional teaching or CLT in Bangladesh depends on
learning goals and classroom realities. If the main goal is exam success, traditional
methods work better due to structured guidance and a focus on grammar and writing. If the goal
is to develop real-life communication skills and fluency, CLT is more suitable, though it must
be adapted to local contexts, such as using smaller communicative tasks, gradually introducing
pair or group work, and blending it with grammar instruction. Therefore, a blended
approach—using traditional methods for grammar and exams, alongside adapted CLT
strategies for speaking and listening—may be the most effective way to teach English in
Bangladesh.
1. Authentic Materials:
Authentic materials are real-life resources created for native speakers, not specifically for
language learners. They are used in the classroom to expose students to how the language is
actually used in real situations. These materials help learners understand natural vocabulary,
expressions, and cultural context.
Examples:
● Newspapers, magazines, or online articles in English
● Menus, tickets, or brochures
● TV shows, podcasts, or YouTube videos
● Conversations, emails, or letters written by native speakers
Real-life classroom example in Bangladesh: A teacher asks students to read a current English
news article from The Guardian and then discuss the main ideas in pairs. This helps students
practice real English, not just textbook sentences.
2. Prepared (Instructional) Materials:
Prepared materials are created specifically for language learners by teachers or textbook
authors. They are simplified or structured to focus on specific grammar, vocabulary, or
communication skills. These materials help learners gradually build language knowledge in a
controlled way.
Examples:
● Textbooks with graded exercises
● Worksheets or handouts designed by the teacher
● Fill-in-the-blank activities, vocabulary lists, or dialogues created for practice
Real-life classroom example in Bangladesh: A teacher gives students a worksheet with a short
dialogue like “Hello, how are you?” and asks them to practice it in pairs. This is easier for
beginners and focuses on a specific language point.
Summary:
● Authentic materials = real-life, native-speaker language, less controlled, helps with real
communication.
● Prepared materials = designed for learners, structured, helps with gradual learning and
specific language points.
Aspect Authentic Materials Prepared (Instructional) Materials
Definition Real-life materials created for native Materials specifically designed for
speakers, not for learners language learners
Purpose Expose learners to natural, Teach specific grammar,
real-world language vocabulary, or skills in a controlled
way
Complexity Often more difficult, may include Simplified and structured to match
slang or complex expressions learners’ level
Examples Newspapers, podcasts, TV shows, Textbooks, worksheets, handouts,
menus, emails exercises
Use in Encourage real communication, Practice specific language points,
Classroom discussion, and cultural drills, or controlled exercises
understanding
Advantages Prepares students for real-life Easier for beginners, focused
communication, authentic vocabulary learning, builds confidence
gradually
Disadvantages May be too difficult for lower-level Less exposure to real-world
learners, less controlled language, may feel artificial
Example in Bangladesh:
● Authentic: Students read a real news article from The Guardian and discuss it in pairs.
● Prepared: Students practice a dialogue from a textbook: “Hello, how are you? I’m fine,
thank you.”
Setbacks of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT):
1. Large Class Sizes: CLT works best in small groups where students can engage in pair
work, role-plays, and discussions. In Bangladesh, many classrooms have 50–100
students, making it very difficult for the teacher to manage interactive activities. For
example, organizing group work in a crowded classroom often leads to confusion, noise,
and uneven participation, reducing the effectiveness of CLT.
2. Limited Exposure to English: Many Bangladeshi students do not need to use English
outside the classroom in their daily life. Most communication, whether at home, in the
market, or with friends, happens in Bangla. This reduces students’ motivation to speak
English, as it is not essential for their everyday survival. Even in classroom activities,
students often switch to Bangla for convenience, limiting the opportunities for real
communication.
3. Exam-Oriented Education: The education system in Bangladesh is heavily focused on
exams that primarily test grammar, reading, and writing. Since CLT emphasizes
speaking and real-life communication, students may see CLT activities as irrelevant or
time-consuming, especially when their primary goal is to pass exams. For example, a
student may prefer memorizing essay structures rather than participating in a role-play
about ordering food in English.
4. Cultural Factors: Cultural expectations in Bangladesh often value teacher authority
and lecture-based learning. Students are used to listening quietly while the teacher
explains everything. In this context, CLT’s approach of encouraging students to interact,
express opinions, and work independently may clash with traditional classroom norms.
Many students feel hesitant or shy to speak in front of peers, making group discussions
and communicative tasks challenging.
5. Incompetent teachers: Successful CLT implementation requires teachers to design,
manage, and adapt communicative tasks effectively. In many Bangladeshi schools and
colleges, teachers may not have received proper CLT training or experience with
interactive teaching methods. This lack of expertise makes it difficult to create
meaningful activities that suit large, mixed-ability classes.
6. Resource Limitations: CLT often relies on resources such as visual aids, real-life texts,
audio-visual tools, and task-based materials. In many Bangladeshi classrooms, such
resources are limited or unavailable. Teachers often have to rely on textbooks and
chalkboards, which restricts opportunities for authentic communication.
7. Time Constraints: CLT activities such as group discussions, role-plays, and projects
take more class time compared to traditional grammar drills. With tight school schedules
and limited class periods, teachers may struggle to cover the syllabus while also
incorporating interactive CLT activities.
8. Educational Imperialism: CLT originated in Western countries and reflects Western
ideas of learning and classroom interaction. Blindly applying CLT in Bangladesh can
impose foreign educational values, ignoring local culture, language habits, and
classroom realities. For instance, expecting students to communicate freely in English
may not align with social norms or the students’ immediate needs.
9. CLT Attitude: Some educators assume that CLT is always modern, progressive, and
universally effective. This mindset can be problematic because it ignores the local
context, including students’ low motivation, cultural expectations, exam pressures, and
limited resources. Following CLT methods rigidly without adaptation may result in
frustration for both teachers and students, rather than improved communication skills.
1. Top-Down Approach in CLT
The Top-Down approach starts with the overall meaning or context and then moves toward
smaller language details like grammar or vocabulary.
It is based on the idea that learners use their existing knowledge, experiences, and
expectations to understand communication.
In CLT, this means students first focus on understanding and expressing meaning, even if
their grammar isn’t perfect.
The goal is to make communication natural and meaningful.
Example (Bangladesh context):
A teacher shows a short video of people shopping at a Dhaka bazar. Students first discuss
what’s happening and what the people might be saying. Even if they don’t know all the English
words, they use their real-life knowledge of a market to guess and communicate — “He is
buying fish,” “She is asking for price.”
Later, the teacher teaches specific words like bargain, price, kilo, or vegetables.
This approach helps learners use language through context, experience, and meaning first.
2. Bottom-Up Approach in CLT
The Bottom-Up approach starts from smaller elements of language, such as sounds, words,
or sentence structures, and builds up to full communication or understanding.
Here, learners first learn grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary, and then use them to
create meaningful speech or writing.
In CLT, the bottom-up method is used to support accuracy — students learn how language
works correctly so they can communicate clearly.
Example (Bangladesh context):
A teacher first teaches the structure “Can I have...?” and practices pronunciation and sentence
patterns.
Then, students use these phrases in a role-play at a restaurant, ordering food in English.
They start with form (bottom) and move up to real communication (top).
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