Sand Casting:

Casting is a process in which the liquid molten metal is poured

into the casting cavity whose shape is same as that of the shape
of the casting to be produced, allowing to solidify and after
solidification, the casting will be taken out by breaking the mould.

Steps in Sand Casting Process:

1. Pour molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
metallurgical properties

Sand Casting Terms:

Pouring Basin:
A pouring basin is a funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mould
that receives the molten metal from the ladle and directs it
smoothly into the sprue, helping to remove impurities and reduce
turbulence during
Sprue
 A sprue is a vertical passage in the mould that connects the
pouring basin to the runner and allows molten metal to flow
downward into the gating system.
Characteristics of Sprue:
• It is always vertical and has a straight tapered circular cross-

section.
• The velocity of molten metal flowing through the sprue is given

by:
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

where h = height of the sprue.

Runner
A runner is a horizontal passage that connects the bottom of
the sprue to the in-gate, allowing molten metal to flow evenly
into the mould cavity.
Characteristics of Runner:
• It is always horizontal and has a uniform trapezoidal cross-

section.
• The trapezoidal shape helps to reduce sand erosion during the

flow of molten metal.

• The actual discharge of molten metal through the runner is given

by:
𝑄actual = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑄theoretical

where Cₙ = coefficient of discharge.

Ingate:
It is the last section of the gating system from where the molten
metal is entering into the casting cavity. It is also horizontal and
uniform trapezoidal in cross-section.
Casting Cavity:
It is the cavity in which the molten metal is filled and solidified in
order to get the desired product.
Riser:
The riser is acting as a Reservoir for supplying the molten metal
to the casting gravity for compensating the liquid Shrinkages
taking place during solidification.
Parting Line:
It is the line that divides the Cope and Drag.
➢ Vents: It is a small opening in the mould to escape the gases
during solidification.
➢ Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the
mould cavity to take care of its own weight.
➢ Cope and Drag: The Top Flask is called as Cope and the
bottom Flask is called Drag.
The Pattern:
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for
shrinkage and machining allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
✓ Wood - common material because it is easy to work,
but it warps
✓ Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
✓ Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

Making the Sand Mold:

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and removing
the pattern
➢ The mold must also contain gating and riser system
➢ If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
➢ A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
Core:
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
➢ It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
 ➢ The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
➢ May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets
Desirable Mold Properties and Characteristics
➢ Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
➢ Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
➢ Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
➢ Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting
➢ Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds
Foundary Sand:
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
➢ Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high
temperatures
➢ Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
➢ Large grain size is more permeable, to allow escape of gases
during pouring
➢ Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
o Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
Binders Used with Foundry Sands
➢ Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
o Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
➢ Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
o Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
o Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
 ➢ Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to
enhance strength and/or permeability
Shell Molding:
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand
held together by thermosetting resin binder
1st Step:
A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and
placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin

2nd Step:
Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell
3rd Step:
Box is repositioned
so that loose uncured particles drop away

4th Step:
sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete
curing

5th Step:
 shell mold is stripped from the pattern

6th Step:
two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by
sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished

7th step:
the finished casting with sprue removed
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Molding
➢ Advantages:

o Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten

metal and better surface finish on casting
o Good dimensional accuracy
o Machining often not required
o Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
o Can be mechanized for mass production
➢ Disadvantages:
o More expensive metal pattern
o Difficult to justify for small quantities
Permanent Mold Casting Processes:
➢ Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new
mold is required for every casting
➢ In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
➢ The processes include:
o Basic permanent mold casting
o Die casting
o Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
o Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
o Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
o Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperature

Steps in permanent mold casting:

1st Step:
mold is preheated and coated
2nd Step:
cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

3rd Step:
molten metal is poured into the mold
 Advantages and Limitations of Permanent Mold Casting
Advantages:
• Good dimensional control and surface finish
• More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are
produced

Limitations:
• Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
• Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold
• High cost of mold

Applications of Permanent Mold Casting:

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron

Die Casting:
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is
injected into mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

Die Casting Machines:

 • Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves
and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting:

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do
not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
1st Step:
with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows
into the chamber

2nd Step:
 Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification

Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine:

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external
melting container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure
into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber
machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
• Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low
melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
1st Step:
with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured
into the chamber

2nd Step:
 ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification

Molds for Die Casting:

• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations of Die Casting:
Advantages:
• Economical for large production quantities
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
• Thin sections are possible
• Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength
to casting
Disadvantages:
• Generally limited to metals with low metal points
• Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
Centrifugal Casting:
A group of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high
speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer
regions of die cavity
• True centrifugal casting
• Semicentrifugal casting
• Centrifuge casting

True Centrifugal Casting:

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular
part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces