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Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Artificial Intelligence Applied to Drone Control: A State of the Art

by

Daniel Caballero-Martin

1,2 ,

Jose Manuel Lopez-Guede

1,2,* ,

Julian Estevez

1,3 and

Manuel Graña

1,4
1

Group of Computational Intelligence, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, 20018 San
Sebastian, Spain
2

Faculty of Engineering of Alava, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, C/Nieves Cano 12,
01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
3

Faculty of Engineering of Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Europa Plaza 1,
20018 San Sebastian, Spain
4

Faculty of Computer Science, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de
Lardizabal 1, 20018 San Sebastian, Spain
*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Drones 2024, 8(7), 296; [Link]

Submission received: 24 April 2024 / Revised: 14 June 2024 / Accepted: 17 June

2024 / Published: 3 July 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perception, Decision-Making and Control of Intelligent
Unmanned System)

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Abstract

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools and techniques has provided a significant
advance in drone technology. Besides the military applications, drones are being increasingly
used for logistics and cargo transportation, agriculture, construction, security and surveillance,
exploration, and mobile wireless communication. The synergy between drones and AI has led to
notable progress in the autonomy of drones, which have become capable of completing
complex missions without direct human supervision. This study of the state of the art examines
the impact of AI on improving drone autonomous behavior, covering from automation to
complex real-time decision making. The paper provides detailed examples of the latest
developments and applications. Ethical and regulatory challenges are also considered for the
future evolution of this field of research, because drones with AI have the potential to greatly
change our socioeconomic landscape.

Keywords:

artificial intelligence algorithms; drones; cargo transport; autonomous decisions

1. Introduction

The advent of advanced autonomous drones and their continuous technological evolution has
marked a significant milestone in various industrial sectors improving the performance and
capacity of industrial processes. This progress has revolutionized sectors such as agriculture,
infrastructure inspection and environmental monitoring. Likewise, innovative applications are
emerging, such as the use of drones to create access points, thus providing a constant
connectivity service in areas where internet access is limited. Drones have facilitated cargo
transportation achieving economies of scale by trajectory optimization and extended
autonomies both in range and in operation by the integration of AI in the control systems of
drones. The evolution of this technology allows complex decisions to be made autonomously in
real time by exploiting Deep Learning (DL) algorithms and massive data processing techniques.

The development of autonomous navigation systems provides greater adaptability and

efficiency in trajectory optimization, especially in dynamic environments. In addition, AI has
proven to be essential in predictive maintenance and failure detection, contributing to the
reliability and safety of drones. In the area of cargo transportation, AI has revolutionized
logistics operations by facilitating the planning of optimal and adaptable routes. This dynamic
approach, supported by real time tracking capability, not only improves operational efficiency
but also contributes significantly to building a more sustainable logistics future.

However, the use of AI for autonomous decision making embedded in drones also poses ethical
and regulatory challenges. The balance between the autonomy of these systems and human
supervision has become a critical point of debate in the development of this emerging
technology.

Although there are numerous papers that focus on specific aspects of the technology applied in
this field, it is of particular interest to make a comprehensive compilation that addresses the
various significant applications and algorithms in the field of AI and drones. The existing
literature focuses on particular tasks or algorithms, such as cargo transporting [1,2] and
transport paradigms [3,4], logistics [5,6], trajectory optimization [7], object detection [8,9],
agricultural operations [10,11] and inventory [12,13] without offering a complete view of the
global applications of AI drones (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Drone + AI technology.

This study of the state of the art is not limited to cargo transportation developments in the
literature, but seeks to identify and examine in detail the most salient AI algorithms that have
proven effective in various drone operations. The organization of the contents covers a
contextualization of the main AI algorithms and cross cutting theoretical aspects, followed by
their applications in drones, taking into account the functional area, innovation, and relevance
in this field. A wide range of notable contributions in this field are explored, from the
application of DL algorithms for real-time object detection and recognition to the use of massive
data processing techniques for dynamic path optimization.

The remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 is dedicated to explaining the search
methodology used in this paper. A background that covers a review of the theoretical
foundations of AI and autonomous decision making and other relevant aspects is presented
in Section 3. Section 4 describes various avant garde applications, while Section 5 gives a
discussion where summarized ideas and aspects are presented from an objective perspective.
Finally, the conclusions section provide the key findings and points out future research
directions. In order to ease the reading of the paper, a graphical outline is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Review structure.

2. Methodology

To carry out the study of the state of the art on the selected topic, a structured methodology is
followed based on the search and analysis of relevant scientific articles. Queries have been
made on Web of Science, IEEE (Xplore Digital Library), and Google Scholar, which have been
selected for their extensive content and updated information on scientific articles. During this
process, a lot of papers were identified that address the topic of study published in scientific
journals and with solid methodological approaches. The detailed review of these articles allows
the identification of trends, thus providing a comprehensive view of the current state of AI
applications in drones.

Due to the large amount of search results, some search and filtering criteria were established.
Firstly, some of the main search terms are: “cargo transport* with drones”, “autonomous drone
flight”, “cooperative load transportation quadrotors”, “types of UAV cargo”, “delivery of
packages with drones”, “delivery of packages with drones”, “cargo transporting strategy UAV”,
“cargo transporting strategy multirotor”, “cargo drones”, “drones and logistics” in the title,
abstract or keywords of the papers. These terms have been chosen to accurately address the
relevant aspects of the research topic and AI. In this case, all terms have been pre-filtered to
ensure that everything presented falls within the scope of AI. Some of the main AI-based
filtering terms are: “Artificial Intelligence”, “Algorithm”, “Artificial Intelligence Algorithm”,
“Machine Learning”, “AI”. As an example, one of the expressions used is: “cargo transportation*
with drones * Artificial Intelligence Algorithm”. To facilitate the visualization of the exclusion
criteria, a graphical scheme is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Flowchart of paper selection.

The primary selection condition was that publication date was after 2019, except when an
article published prior to 2019 was deemed exceptionally relevant to the topic (up to 9% of the
articles). The main motivation for selecting this date was to establish a lower boundary criterion
for a comprehensive analysis of the state of the art from that date onwards. Due to the
robustness of the AI algorithms presented and the standardization of many drone operations, it
is interesting to set this limit in order to incorporate the most innovative operations. The
purpose here is to showcase applications in this field that are both stable and innovative.

Once all the relevant paper references have been obtained and filtered according to the
established criteria, a detailed breakdown is carried out to classify the aspects in which AI
affects drone operations. This classification approach has identified specific areas of impact,
such as autonomous navigation, visual recognition, drone collaboration, Machine Learning (ML)
and ethical and regulatory considerations.

In Figure 4, there is a representation of this classification in graphic form, highlighting the most
recurrent and relevant topics. This visualization offers a clear perspective of how AI is
influencing drone operations, and how these topics interact to drive significant advances.

Figure 4. Distribution of topics.

3. Background
Thanks to the development of various techniques and methodologies, AI has experienced
significant advances in recent decades. Techniques such as ML stand out for their ability to
provide autonomy in decision making through interaction with the environment.

ML is an important component of the growing field of data science. Through the use of
statistical methods, models are trained to make classifications or predictions by discovering key
information in various data mining-based projects. In this context of evolution, DL emerges as
an advanced technique within ML, consisting of artificial neural networks with multiple layers.
These deep structures allow us to address complex tasks, such as recognizing patterns in images
or understanding natural language.

There are a wide variety of ML algorithms, and it is beneficial to pre-classify them into
categories following some basic criteria. One of the main and most significant criteria is related
to the way in which the algorithms are trained. In this classification, four main methodologies
are distinguished: supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and Reinforcement Learning (RL).
A new type of methodology called semi-supervised learning arises when labeling the data is
difficult. Semi-supervised learning is able to handle both labeled and unlabeled data. Most
semi-supervised learning algorithms are combinations of unsupervised and supervised
algorithms.

3.1. Supervised Learning

Supervised learning is defined by the use of labeled data sets to train models that accurately
classify data or predict outcomes.

This technique allows organizations to solve a wide variety of real world problems at scale, such
as sorting spam into a folder other than the inbox. Various algorithms and calculation
techniques are used in this process (Support Vector Machine (SVM) [14], K-nearest neighbors
(KNN) [15], Random Forest (RF) [16], etc.). One specific branch of supervised learning is DL,
which has applications that cover a wide range of fields, including voice and image recognition
(Figure 5), automatic translation, medical diagnosis, and autonomous driving.

Figure 5. Feature extraction and object classification using DL.

As a particular case, DL has significantly influenced the evolution of drones, especially in the
field of parcel delivery. Drones can now specialize both individually and collectively, adapting to
the characteristics of the load, thereby optimizing delivery processes.

3.2. Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning carries out the clustering of unlabeled data sets. These algorithms
discover hidden data groupings or patterns without the need for any human intervention. Their
ability to discover similarities and differences in information makes them the ideal solution for
exploratory data analysis, cross selling strategies, customer segmentation, and image
recognition. One of the most important algorithms presented in this methodology is the K-
Means algorithm [17], whose theoretical basis is based on dividing a set of data into ‘k’ groups
or clusters. Its main objective is to minimize the sum of the squared distances between the data
points and the centroids of their respective clusters (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Clustering by the k-means methodology.

As far as the field of drones is concerned, it presents a series of significant benefits and
disadvantages. On the one hand, it can be a beneficial strategy in several situations such as
object detection, image segmentation, navigation, and path planning [18]. On the other hand,
the k-means algorithm presents some limitations such as the need to specify the number of ‘k’
clusters a priori, the sensitivity to the initial selection of centroids, and the tendency to produce
spherical clusters of similar sizes, implying that in some applications focused on drones, it may
be beneficial to explore other types of techniques that obtain more satisfactory results.

3.3. Reinforcement Learning

Another of the most important techniques is RL, whose main characteristic is to learn through
interaction with the environment, making sequential decisions and receiving feedback,
establishing a system of rewards and penalties (Figure 7). The choice of the appropriate strategy
is carried out autonomously, trying to obtain the best possible reward in all the decisions that
are made. For example, many robots use reinforcement learning to learn to walk.

Figure 7. RL learning cycle.

Like an RL base algorithm, Q-Learning (QL) is presented, whose objective is to train agents with
the capacity to make decisions optimally in unknown environments and who present a high
degree of dynamism. As it is based on a reward system, it can be applied innovatively in various
fields such as collaborative load sharing.

In this context, a methodology that takes advantage of RL adopting a hierarchy approach is

presented. This approach makes a division into two main strategic levels.
The first level or higher level is in charge of making global decisions about the delivery of
packages and the second level or lower level is in charge of making decisions about individual
drones to meet the objectives. This implementation concept bi-level of the QL algorithm allows
establishing greater scalability and improved efficiency at the global level of the system [19].

Performance is demonstrated in terms of efficiency and scalability in the delivery of packages

with drones. This methodology not only presents a special advance in logistics with drones, but
also stands out for presenting the potential of hierarchical RL to address complex challenges in
dynamic environments whose objective is collaborative decision making. Continuing with RL,
another fundamental approach in solving sequential decision making and optimization
problems is Markov optimization. This methodology is used in situations where the decisions
made are only related to the current state of the system, this approach being the fundamental
support of the Markov property, which is based on the fact that the future state of a system is
only conditioned by the present state without taking into account the path that led to it.

Transferring this methodology to the field of drones, a distributed communication paradigm is

presented that enhances collaboration between aircraft in charge of delivery logistics [20]. This
mechanism, applied in the context of collaborative delivery, capitalizes on the Markov property
by allowing drones to collaborate in real time based only on the systems present state and
immediate conditions.

3.4. Meta-Heuristic Algorithms

Meta-heuristic techniques are advanced search methods used to address optimization problems
that present great complexity. Solving such problems involves the task of identifying the most
appropriate solution among an extensive set of possibilities. Although these strategies do not
guarantee the identification of the optimal solution in a defined time interval, it has been
observed that they can generate high-quality results in time periods considered acceptable.
Regarding combinatorial optimization, especially in situations where an individual exhaustive
analysis is inefficient, these strategies are predominantly implemented.

Paradigmatic examples of meta-heuristic algorithms include the ant colony optimization

algorithm (ACO) [21], the genetic algorithm (GA) [22], the simulated annealing algorithm (SA)
[23], the tabu search algorithm (TS) [24], and the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO)
[25].

These tools are used in different contexts, from planning transport routes and managing
schedules, to optimizing technical methods and managing telecommunications systems. Meta-
heuristic algorithms are valued for their flexibility in addressing complex challenges in which
obtaining direct answers is difficult or involves considerable computational cost.
To optimize the logistics distribution of goods, a two stage methodology that integrates heuristic
and meta-heuristic tactics is recommended. This approach is aimed at perfecting the
comprehensive delivery system, combining ground transportation and the use of drones in
cities with traffic restrictions [26]. The method comprises two essential phases: the creation of
routes for vehicles and drones, which benefit from the use of techniques such as tabu search
and the ACO algorithm and the synchronization in the handling of deliveries, where the variable
neighborhood search (VNS) is used.

Likewise, meta-heuristic algorithms play a crucial role in strengthening communications

systems, applying them to the improvement of FANET networks (flying ad hoc networks),
seeking optimization through specific procedures derived from said algorithmic tools [27].

As a particular case, the use of GA in the context of drones has proven to be an effective
strategy for addressing various challenges, such as path planning, flight control, obstacle
detection, and the optimization of control parameters [18]. These algorithms, inspired by
natural evolution and genetics, leverage biological concepts to solve search and optimization
problems, especially in conditions where conventional approaches might be inefficient.

The basic operation of a GA involves the creation of an initial population of candidate solutions,
represented as individuals. The evaluation of these individuals is carried out using a fitness
function that measures their effectiveness in solving the problem in question. Through
iterations involving selection, crossover and mutation processes, the algorithm generates new
solutions, constantly seeking to improve the fitness of the population. This cycle repeats until a
stopping criterion is met, such as reaching a maximum number of generations or achieving a
good enough solution.

The application of GA in the context of drones covers a variety of challenges and problems, from
collaborative distribution to route planning and mission assignment in three dimensional
environments, highlighting their versatility and effectiveness in solving complex problems in this
field.

3.5. Challenges in AI Integration for Drones

Due to the large amount of data generated and the computational need to be treated and
evaluated, cloud simulation is presented as a novel aspect, an essential tool in the development
and research of intelligent systems. Through the ability to simulate complex environments in a
stepwise and accessible manner, important advances are enabled in areas such as autonomous
robotics, space exploration, and pilot training.

Despite the progress made, there are challenges in the integration of AI technology into the
operational drones. One of the main challenges is the optimization of DL algorithms for
execution in cloud simulation environments. While AI has demonstrated great applications,
knowledge gaps persist in areas such as the interpretation of DL models, the adaptability of (RL)
algorithms to dynamic environments, and computational efficiency in complex simulations in
the cloud.

3.6. Collaborative Communication between Aircrafts

Through the implementation of a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) approach, a

comprehensive decision-making framework is established, where the drone develops its local
policy by directly observing the state of the environment in its proximity and the reception of
messages from neighboring drones. This method aims to encourage cooperation between
drones in the generation of highly optimized multiple trajectories. This collaborative approach
implicitly leads to the minimization of resources needed to carry out operations [7].

The drone, by dynamically learning from its immediate environment, manages to adjust its
behavior autonomously. This approach not only optimizes the individual trajectories of the
drones, but also contributes to the overall optimization of the system, since the cooperative
generation of routes seeks to reduce resource consumption as much as possible.

The uniqueness of this approach lies in its ability to adapt in real time to changes in the
environment, such as modifications in topology or adjustments in resource availability.
Furthermore, by promoting the cooperative generation of optimal trajectories, this distributed
RL framework effectively acts in the overall minimization of the resources required to carry out
drone logistics operations. The application of this innovative approach not only stands out for its
efficiency, but also provides an advanced solution for the collaborative management of drones
in dynamic and complex environments.

3.7. AI Wings—Training, Simulation, and Piloting from the Cloud

AI Wings represents an innovative drone solution based on the Internet of Things (AIoT) with
the purpose of controlling multiple drones and deploying AI models. This system features a
highly secure cloud server that serves as a control center to effectively coordinate and direct
drone fleets.

A distinctive feature of AI Wings is the integration of Virtual Reality (VR) simulation using AirSim
drone simulation software. This offers a realistic platform for training and testing, allowing
operators to simulate drone missions in virtual environments. This VR simulation facilitates the
evaluation and continuous improvement of AI models, thus contributing to the optimal
performance of drones in real situations [28].

3.8. Drone Technologies

In this section, some important technical aspects related to drones are presented. Fundamental
technical characteristics will be explored, including their payload capacity, flight range and
altitude, and battery recharging methods. In addition, the main technical challenges and
innovative solutions that are emerging in the field of autonomy and recharging will be
discussed. This review will provide an understanding of the technologies that are driving the
evolution of drones in various applications. A summary of the most significant references can be
found in Table 1.

Table 1. Drone technologies reference table.

3.8.1. Drone Morphology

Drones come in numerous specifications, sizes and configurations. They are classified into four
main categories: fixed-wing, hybrid fixed-wing, single-rotor, and multi-rotor, also considering the
number of rotors [29,30]. Fixed-wing drones are ideal for aerial surveys and mapping due to
their stable and long-endurance flight capability. Hybrid fixed-wing drones combine automation
with manual gliding, offering a balance between manoeuvrability and efficiency. Single-rotor
drones, while more complex and costly, provide exceptional accuracy for specific tasks, such as
detailed topographic surveys. Finally, multi-rotor drones, especially quadcopters, are highly
valued for their agility, vertical take-off and landing capabilities, and are commonly used in
surveillance and aerial photography applications. Multirotor drones can be tricopters,
quadcopters, hexacopters, or octocopters as shown in Table 2. The main characteristics of each
of the drone categories can be seen in Table 3.

Table 2. Number of propellers for different types of drones.

Table 3. Main features of different drone categories—vertical takeoff or landing (VTOL).

3.8.2. Flight Time

Small drones can fly at speeds of less than 15 m/s, while large drones can reach up to 100 m/s.
Drone speed must be properly controlled at turning points to improve energy efficiency. In ref.
[31], the authors focus on the relationship between the drones turning agility and its speed.
Flight time, which is influenced by size, weight and weather conditions, is crucial. Large drones
can fly for hours, while small drones are limited to 20–30 min. Other aspects that affect flight
time are the autopilot and GPS system.

3.8.3. Payload Capacity and Impact on Drone Performance

The payload capacity that a drone can carry varies from a few grams to several hundred
kilograms. While a larger payload allows more accessories to be carried, it generally decreases
flight time due to the increased battery consumption and size of the drone. Common payloads
include sensors and video cameras used for surveillance and reconnaissance, including
electronic devices weighing less than 1 kg [32]. Heavy payloads tend to shorten flight time, but a
drone with a larger surface area and more motors can store more energy, which improves flight
time. Payload quality can also extend flight duration without sacrificing accuracy and resolution.

3.8.4. Range and Altitude

Drones can be remotely controlled from various distances, known as their range, varying from a
few metres in small drones to kilometres in larger drones. Altitude, on the other hand, is the
height at which they can fly. A classification of aerial platforms is presented based on the
altitude they can reach:

• High-Altitude Platforms (HAPs): HAPs, like balloons, are also used for mobile
connectivity. These High-Altitude Platforms provide more extensive coverage compared
to LAPs. However, they are complex to deploy and are generally used as a means to
support internet connectivity.

• Low-Altitude Platforms (LAPs): LAPs are frequently deployed to support mobile

communication due to their fast deployment and low cost. In addition, these platforms
provide line of sight (LoS) routing, which significantly improves communication
performance [33]. Table 4 presents drone categories based on altitude.

Table 4. Drone classification by altitude [34].

3.8.5. Batteries in Drones

Drones are currently used in a variety of applications, such as military operations, power line
inspection, disaster prevention, and smart agriculture. These unmanned aerial vehicles carry
different payloads, including GPS, infrared cameras, batteries, and sensors. Drones generally use
high-energy batteries, such as lithium batteries, which allow a flight time of 20 to 40 min [35].
However, the limited battery capacity poses critical challenges in terms of range and endurance.
Increasing the size of the battery is not feasible, as it increases the weight of the drone.

Several studies have addressed drone battery charging [36]. Jawad et al. [37] proposed three
strategies to increase flight time: equipping drones with higher-capacity batteries, although this
increases their weight; swapping batteries after landing, which is complex; and recharging
batteries at the drone’s base station, using either wired or wireless power transfer systems.

4. State of the Art

This section reviews the most promising areas of research where the AI algorithms have made
an impact in the development of drone operations.

4.1. Cargo Operations

Despite being related to the same application of cargo, there are a number of heterogeneous
scopes, which motivates us to divide them into several parts. A summary of the most significant
references can be seen in the Table 5.

Table 5. Cargo operations reference table. Reference number (Ref).

4.1.1. Complexities Associated with Cargo in Drone Transport

When addressing the complexities associated with cargo in drone transportation, it is essential
to consider both the specific conditions of the products to be transported and the intrinsic
characteristics of said cargo. For instance, the need for rapid delivery for perishable products
has motivated studies that focus on bi-objective optimization models. These models seek to
minimize the costs associated with distribution, also reducing value losses that could occur
during the process [18].

In parallel, the physical characteristics of the cargo, such as its weight, size, fragility, and
handling requirements, play a crucial role in selecting the appropriate type of drone. For
example, a heavy load may require a drone with a higher lifting capacity, while a fragile load
may need an additional suspension system or protection to prevent damage during transport.
There are specialized studies that analyze in detail the behavior of different types of cargo
during transportation. These sudies take into account variables such as stability, aerodynamic
forces and structural resistance, with some studies focusing specifically on loads that do not
exceed 5 kg maximum weight [38,39].

These studies also contribute to the design of safe restraint structures and the development of
flight strategies that not only minimize the risks associated with cargo transportation, but also
ensure the successful and efficient delivery of products. In this sense, detailed understanding of
cargo dynamics becomes an integral component to effectively advance the field of drone freight
transportation.

4.1.2. Challenges in Cargo Delivery with Drones

Despite notable advances in AI that have enabled the development of advanced algorithms for
route planning and autonomous decision making by drones, there are additional challenges that
require attention, such as efficient battery management and the consideration of external
factors such as adverse weather conditions, airspace regulations, weight restrictions and the
optimization of recipient waiting time during the implementation of drone delivery systems
[40].

Various research focuses on developing solutions that address these specific needs. A route
planning approach is proposed for collaborative delivery systems with drones, using GA. This
approach considers multiple objectives, such as minimizing route length, delivery time and
energy consumption, thus addressing key challenges in drone delivery system efficiency. In the
field of collaborative vehicle–drone distribution (CVDDN), an efficient hybrid heuristic algorithm
based on improved K-means clustering and extended non-dominant sorting GA-II (ENSGA-II)
[41] has been proposed. It addresses complex problems such as vehicle–drone collaboration,
site selection, and the distribution of perishable products, using clustering strategies for
effective localization and routing optimization.

Furthermore, another RL based approach for route planning and task allocation in collaborative
drone delivery systems is presented [20,42,43]. This method uses RL algorithms and Deep
Neural Networks (DNN) to optimize task allocation and drone routes, considering factors such as
workload, location, and drone capacity. Performance in terms of efficiency and scalability in
drone package delivery is demonstrated using the QL algorithm [66]. In this context, an
approach based on GA has been proposed. This approach considers multiple objectives, such as
minimizing path length, delivery time and energy consumption, employing an objective
decomposition strategy to efficiently address multi-objective optimization [44].

In the field of drone package delivery from a single truck [2], the problem arises of determining
the route of the truck and the sequence of trips of the drones to meet customer demands
efficiently. This methodology includes an extended graph based formulation and an enhanced
Benders decomposition method with relaxations. Additionally, in the field of e-commerce and
optimizing package delivery by drones, a mixed integer programming model and a GA based on
FIFO and rescheduling are proposed [45]. These algorithms stand out for their efficiency and
ability to deal with even large test instances, suggesting their applicability in real-world
implementations.

Delivery time and delay in the delivery of packages is a critical problem [46]. Hybrid block-based
edge recombination algorithms (HBERA) are presented and shown to be effective when
compared with edge recombination crossover algorithms (ERX), especially in handling multi-
objective problems.

There is a wide diversity of approaches to address the specific challenges in drone package
delivery, from route planning to resource optimization and the consideration of multiple
objectives.

The Markov property thus becomes a fundamental aspect, ensuring that the actions of the
drones are aligned with the present state of the delivery environment. The introduction of
distributed communication further enhances this principle, allowing agile and adaptive
collaboration between drones, demonstrating its effectiveness not only in optimizing package
delivery, but also in system efficiency [67].

4.1.3. Adaptive Models and Transportation Problems

Adaptive mathematical models are one of the most promising applications of AI in this field,
allowing a better understanding of the cargo transport structure, translating into greater
efficiency and profitability. The importance of adaptive mathematical models lies in their ability
to enhance logistical planning and optimization by reducing costs and delivery times while
taking into account the specific configuration of each transportation method [18]. These models
are particularly useful when considering factors such as distance, weight, cargo size, weather
conditions or any other relevant variables that may impact the transport process. Recent
advancements in AI have also enabled the development of sophisticated adaptive mathematical
models, which can automatically process vast amounts of data and generate optimized
algorithms with remarkable efficiency. You can also analyze patterns in real-time and historical
data to improve model predictions and accuracy.

Another major challenge in drone cargo transportation is the coordination of multiple drones
working together to transport a cargo. This technique is known as collaborative drone parcel
transportation and is used to transport larger loads that a single drone cannot handle. It is also
important to take into account the inertia that a load with a high volumetric can cause, and
algorithms must be implemented that are capable of compensating for the mobility of the
drone network involved in the operation, counteracting this problem, and avoiding losing both
the cargo and the drone network that transports it [47]. To address these challenges,
manufacturers are working on the development of more advanced and safer drones by
developing ML models that achieve improved coordination and safety. There are several
important variables that must be taken into account when which proceeds to the design of
some type of AI algorithm based on the calculation of optimal trajectories; these variables are
the incidence of wind, weight and volume of the drone, cargo stability, and weather conditions
[47].

When drones are included in urban areas or crowded areas, there is a great risk of causing some
damage to external agents in the process of the operation. To mitigate this risk, operations are
carried out with protective cages implanted in the drones [48]. This type of methodology must
be supported by AI algorithms capable of correcting the trajectory and identifying obstacles in
real time, since when flying with a protective cage it is much more likely to generate some
incident time.

4.1.4. Dynamic Delivery Optimization Based on Demand Fluctuations

This system in charge of dynamic delivery optimization based on demand fluctuations uses an
advanced neural network architecture to generate organized sequences of delivery locations.
Various optimization criteria are taken into account, such as distance traveled, efficiency in the
use of vehicles and cost minimization [49]. The particularity of this model lies in its ability to
dynamically adjust to changes or updates in real time, such as adjustments to delivery
addresses or modifications to orders.

This dynamic capability ensures exceptional flexibility and agile response to situations involving
constant fluctuations in demand. This adaptability allows the system to maintain optimal
performance even in logistics environments characterized by sudden changes and frequent
adjustments. In this way, significant advantages are generated, providing a robust and efficient
solution in scenarios where demand is variable and dynamic.

4.1.5. Cost Function Focused on Distance and Waiting Time

The cost function-based algorithm is one of the most common approaches to optimize drone
package delivery using search algorithms based on a combined cost function. This cost function
takes into account both the distance cost, to minimize the total distance traveled by the drones
and the waiting cost, to reduce the waiting time for deliveries. Complementing the cost function
optimization, a distributed routing algorithm can be proposed, making the drones work
collaboratively to deliver the package to the target locations. The algorithm optimizes the
assignment of tasks and routes, taking into account the location of the packages and the
individual capabilities of the drones [50].
4.1.6. Organizational Management of Several Drones

One of the main challenges is to programme and manage multiple drones to optimize the
efficiency of cargo deliveries. When working with a fleet of drones, it is essential to coordinate
and synchronize their operations. This involves designing intelligent algorithms and scheduling
systems that assign the appropriate tasks to each drone, taking into account factors such as
payload capacity, flight range, and availability.

Additionally, managing multiple drones involves monitoring and controlling their performance
in real time [51]. It is necessary to monitor the location of each drone, the state of charge of its
battery, its health and any anomalies that may arise during the flight. To do this, telemetry
systems and sensors can be used on drones, which send information in real time to a control
center and guarantee stability in connectivity [52]. This allows quick and effective decisions to
be made to ensure delivery success. It is also necessary to have an effective and latency free
authentication system to be able to identify all the drones that participate in that operation
[53,68,69] and to be able to keep them located as best as possible within predefined location
methodologies to avoid all types of conflicts during maneuvers in the that airspace can be
shared [70,71].

4.1.7. Collaborative Routing and Distributed Cargo

A significant development in the logistics field is the adoption of a collaborative approach in the
route design and equitable distribution of cargo. These components are essential to maximize
efficiency in delivery processes.

This collaborative routing and distributed cargo approach involves the use of multiple drones
operating in a coordinated manner to deliver cargo efficiently and quickly. Collaboration
between drones allows delivery routes to be optimized, reducing times and maximizing the
efficiency of the system as a whole [54,55,72].

To complement this strategy, distributed charging systems are implemented. These systems
ensure that drones have enough power to complete their missions, through charging stations
strategically located along delivery routes. In this way, the drones can charge their batteries,
maintaining their autonomy throughout the delivery process.

Research into this transportation paradigm focuses on route planning and optimization
algorithms, taking into account variables such as distance, air traffic, the location of delivery
destinations, and the characteristics of the transported cargo. These types of decisions can be
made using DL with graphs, which can assist in real-time decision making [73,74]. Additionally,
charging planning algorithms are used to determine the optimal location of charging stations
along routes [3].
The effectiveness of this methodology is evaluated through extensive simulations, comparing
the results with existing approaches. Collaborative routing and distributed charging are
observed to achieve faster and more efficient deliveries compared to more traditional
approaches.

The study and design of this type of methodology must take into account some fundamental
aspects such as route planning, coordination between drones and shared load management.
These coordination principles play a fundamental role in ensuring that drones operate
harmoniously and efficiently, avoiding collisions and optimizing payload distribution [75].

Another approach used is the leader/tracker paradigm, where one drone acts as a leader and
the others as trackers. This paradigm has been combined in some studies with cooperative
transport with a load suspended by cables [4,56,76,77,78].

The importance of considering possible delays in decision making due to the network is
highlighted. Some studies anticipate this phenomenon and analyze how it would affect the
behavior of the drone network in such circumstances [57,79].

Simulations in virtual environments are essential to evaluate collaborative routing and

distributed cargo without risking the integrity of the drones or the environment. Compared to
traditional delivery approaches, it has been shown to significantly improve transportation
efficiency, reducing delivery times, optimizing the use of resources, and minimizing the number
of trips made.

4.1.8. Last Mile Delivery

Optimizing the generation of itineraries in the parcel delivery paradigm with several drones
transported by a truck poses challenges that require advanced approaches to achieve the
efficient distribution of packages [5,6,58]. This approach is characterized by the use of a long-
range means of transportation, such as a truck, which acts as a central base for collecting
packages and an approach point to delivery areas. Meanwhile, drones are responsible for
making deliveries to specific locations nearby.

A recent study addresses the optimization of a last mile delivery system that combines vans and
drones [6]. The research highlights the combination of three transportation methods: vans,
drones, and trucks. The drones and vans are responsible for distribution services, while the
trucks are responsible for transporting the merchandise and the drones to the stations. A
discrete optimization model and a two-phase heuristic algorithm are presented to optimize the
total delivery cost, including the transportation costs of the vans and the delivery cost of the
drone. The results indicate significant cost savings by combining traditional delivery modes with
the use of drones and drone stations. Another of the most promising studies in this field
presents an innovative hybrid delivery methodology, leveraging the combined use of drones and
trucks. This approach focuses on optimally guiding drone missions through a receding horizon
linear quadratic regulator (LQR), effectively managing takeoff, free flight, pickup, delivery, and
dynamic landing on a moving vehicle. Simulation results of the truck–drone delivery
architecture are presented and discussed in detail, proving the effectiveness of the proposed
method [59,60].

Other research addresses same-day delivery with vehicles and drones [5]. A Deep Q-Learning
(DQN) approach is proposed to assign clients to vehicles or drones dynamically. The method
learns the value of assigning a new client to vehicles or drones and demonstrates its superiority
compared to baseline policies. This approach uses different vehicle fleets based on capacity and
speed, leveraging their strengths to optimize same day delivery.

On the other hand, a last-mile delivery system with electric vehicles (EV) and drones is being
studied, where battery-swapping vehicles (BSV) offer a mobile battery exchange service for EVs.
A mixed-integer programming model (PIM) is formulated and a large neighborhood search
algorithm based on QL (LNS-QL) is designed [58]. This approach seeks to minimize the total cost
considering energy consumption, driver salaries, and obsolescence costs. The results of the
experiments verify the effectiveness of the model in small-, medium-, and large-scale instances,
demonstrating the viability of the cooperative delivery system of EV and drones.

These studies reflect the diversity of approaches to address the challenges in generating
itineraries for package delivery with drones and other vehicles applied to the last-mile delivery
paradigm, highlighting the importance of considering diverse fleets, energy efficiency, and DL to
optimize package distribution.

4.1.9. Delivery in Urban and Catastrophic Areas

Delivery of cargos in urban areas assisted by drones provides speed, agility, traffic decongestion,
and greater flexibility due to the ability to access difficult or traffic restricted areas; as a
consequence, packages can reach destinations that would otherwise be complicated for
traditional delivery services.

In order to achieve an effective and controlled delivery with drones within urban areas, various
methodologies supported by AI algorithms are proposed.

One of the most widespread paradigms consists of transporting a fleet of drones by trucks to
the urban areas of cities. From this point, the aircraft are launched with the respective packages
for delivery [1,6]. Once the delivery is complete, each drone will return to the truck to pick up
the next package [2,61]. In order to optimize parcel collection and distribution points on roads,
the development of AI algorithms is proposed with the charge of choosing these optimal points
[62,63].
With the aim of streamlining the order/delivery system, approaches are proposed where, when
placing an order, the optimal route is immediately planned and the task is assigned to one of
the available drones. Not all orders can be managed using this method, as there are operational
limitations on the part of drones. Therefore, it is necessary to implement a system that
identifies the viability of delivering through this route. To address this challenge, numerous
studies use algorithms such as QL, K-means or GA to carry out the feasibility analysis [5,80],
achieving the most efficient distribution possible [18,81].

Due to the nature of operations delivery in urban zones, the drones used must be able to
modify their structure. Thanks to this morphological flexibility, they are able to adapt to various
types of cargo and the environment [40]. As a novelty, the creation of an auction model is
presented in which available deliveries are published and the drones postulate these depending
on the characteristics of the distribution [82]. Some studies, due to their combinatorial
complexity, are only proposed at a theoretical level [82]. Also, an analysis of transportation
networks must be carried out, due to the high demand for the use of drones for this type of
operations, and algorithms can be applied to predict demand in specific geographic areas in
order to carry out delivery planning much more efficient [83,84,85].

In catastrophic areas and emergency situations, quick and efficient access to medical supplies
and services can mean the difference between life and death. In this context, drones have
emerged as a highly important tool for the delivery of life support in disaster-affected areas.
These aircraft not only provide medical aid and essential supplies, but can also carry out search
and rescue tasks, making it easier to locate trapped or endangered people. Another of the most
significant features is the ability to transmit information in real time to emergency teams,
providing an aerial view of the situation and helping in strategic decision making. The
combination of drones with AI can further enhance the efficiency and effectiveness in this type
of operations. Planning optimal trajectories is one of the main applications of AI algorithms in
this type of circumstances, maximizing the speed and safety of life-support deliveries, avoiding
obstacles (one of the most used techniques for obstacle avoidance is RL) [43,86,87,88], and
guaranteeing the delivery of supplies efficiently and fairly [18,84].

The identification and recognition of individuals, real time analysis of medical data, and logistics
and resource management in environments affected by limitations are other complementary
examples in which the technological fusion between drones and AI algorithms is present. In
addition, simulations are presented in environments with diverse characteristics with the
purpose of understanding the behavior of drones in different cases, being able to determine the
optimal conditions for operation.

Furthermore, in three-dimensional rescue mission environments, a mission assignment method

based on adaptive GA and trajectory planning with sine–cosine particle swarm optimization
(SCPSO) has been proposed [45]. This method addresses challenges such as 3D terrain
modeling, common threats, and drone performance considerations.

In the domain of secure communication networks, Markov optimization emerges as a crucial

technique. Outside the logistics domain, this methodology is presented as a tool to address the
challenges of communication security in Internet-assisted drone networks in urban
environments [64], reducing communication issues during emergency situations, such as
earthquakes or landslides [65].

4.2. Agricultural Operations

The union of AI with drones has completely transformed the way we grow and harvest food,
taking agriculture to new points of efficiency and sustainability. Drones have revolutionized
agriculture, offering farmers an aerial view of their land. This perspective has allowed the
detailed monitoring of fields, making the early detection of problems and data-based decision
making easier [89]. The ability of drones to cover large areas of land with speed and precision
has changed the dynamics of modern agriculture.

Convolutional neural networks (CNN) equipped on drones have proven effective in the early
identification of plant diseases [90,91]. By analyzing detailed images, these networks can
discern specific patterns, allowing farmers to take preventive measures before the problem
spreads, thereby improving the overall health of crops. By combining RL algorithms and neural
networks, the most effective routes for precise spraying can be determined [92,93]. This
combination of constant monitoring and optimized spraying improves both the quality and
quantity of crops.

Pollination is vital for food production, and drones have taken on a crucial role even in this
process. Using AI systems, they can classify images to identify unpollinated flowers and, if
necessary, carry out artificial pollination [10]. This capacity guarantees the reproduction of
plants and crops, contributing significantly to global food security.

On the other hand, the detection of flooding and weeds has been observed and controlled [11].
Using algorithms such as eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB) [94,95], SVM [14,96], RF [16,97] and
KNN [15,98], drones can identify flood-prone areas and precisely eradicate weeds [99,100],
ensuring resilient and healthy agricultural production. These algorithms continually learn and
adapt to changing soil conditions and crop needs, ensuring constant improvement in the
operations for which they have been designed. A summary of the most significant references
can be found in Table 6.

Table 6. Agricultural operations reference table. Reference number (Ref).

4.3. Drone Identification and Detection

The proliferation of drones has generated great expectations due to their ability to be applied in
various areas, but on the contrary, it generates concern regarding their misuse and the potential
threat they pose [101] due to their invasive nature. There is a proliferation of studies in the field
of detection and monitoring, carrying out comparisons between methods based on Linear
Kalman Filters (LKF) and Non-Linear Polynomial Regression (NPR) [101]. In addition, techniques
based on AI are explored for detection and recognition [101].

One of the most innovative aspects regarding drone detection involves the use of skinny
patterns and iterative neighborhood component analysis (INCA) [102]. This classification model
uses techniques such as decision tree (DT), discriminant (D), SVM, KNN and ensemble classifiers
(EC), achieving a classification accuracy of 99.72% [102]. In another context, a game theory
based on the Apolonio circle and QL for cooperative drone hunting (ACGQ-CH) is proposed
[103]. This method uses strategies based on the tracker/evader paradigm, guiding trackers to
achieve effective cooperative hunting [103].

The ability to identify and detect drones in real time is crucial to maintaining security, which is
why drone detection and tracking systems are designed in real time, combining multiple DL
[104,105] and computer vision techniques [106]. These systems use the Yolo-v4 model to detect
drones and generate visual models for their tracking [106]. On the other hand, end-to-end
models are developed for the detection and classification of different drones using YOLOv2 as
an object detection model [107].

The use of multiscale time frequency convolutional neural networks for the detection and
identification of drones based on radio frequency signals [108] is presented as one of the most
novel and promising approaches, surpassing existing methods in the detection and
identification of drones by radio frequency using DNN [108]. Additionally, the use of DRL is
explored to counter drones in a 3D space using another drone [109]. This method uses the DQN
algorithm combining imitation learning and RL to hunt down target drones [109].

Due to the malicious use of drones, physical security and privacy are also of concern. The
autonomous detection and identification of drones have become essential to address this type
of problem. The use of the acoustic characteristics of drones and advanced deep learning
techniques is presented as one of the most innovative and promising techniques to solve this
problem [110]. The introduction an acoustic dataset hybrids of drones, which includes audio
recordings from real drones and artificially generated audio samples, has been instrumental in
improving the detection and identification of this type of aircraft [110]. Additionally, applying
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) to generate drone audio snippets has proven beneficial
in detecting new and unknown drones, thereby improving physical infrastructure security and
privacy [110]. A summary of the most significant references can be found in Table 7.

Table 7. Drone identification and detection reference table. Reference number (Ref).

4.4. Detection, Analysis and Inventory

In ecology, the complexity of subtropical mountain forests has challenged scientists for years.
Thanks to high-resolution detection images captured by drones, the diversity of tree species and
their status can be accurately mapped. This approach has achieved an accuracy of 83% using
four object based classification algorithms (KNN, Classification and Regression Tree (CART),
SVM, and RF) [111].

In marine environments, seagrasses play a vital role in coastal conservation. Using high-
resolution imagery from unmanned aerial systems, several ML algorithms have been evaluated
for object-based classification of submerged seagrasses. The Bayes classifier excelled with 94%
accuracy under favorable environmental conditions [112].

Exploring the application of drones in forest fire detection, the combination of DL object
recognition with drones equipped with specific sensors is investigated. Their analysis highlights
the effectiveness of fully equipped drones for real time monitoring and early fire detection,
using models such as YOLO and R-CNN [113].

DL approaches to wildfire classification, detection, and segmentation outperform traditional

methods and provides a detailed analysis of the data sets and challenges present in current
research [114].

In the field of road safety, a computer vision-based method is proposed to detect pavement
markings in school zones using high resolution aerial imagery. Their method, based on
techniques such as DL or ML with an accuracy of 94%, highlights how drone technology can
improve the collection of critical data for road planning and safety [115].

RL algorithms have significantly improved trajectory planning, ensuring the flight safety of
drones in complex tasks, such as detecting aquaculture cages scattered at sea. Thanks to this
trajectory planning methodology, drones can save energy while completing complex tasks and
return to the ground base safely [87].

In the field of aerial surveillance, the optimization of quadcopter performance is explored

through the integration of helium gas. Likewise, drones are used for object detection by using
the Tensor Flow object detection API. This strategy not only provides advanced solutions for
drone based surveillance, but also strategically highlights the impact of helium on critical factors
such as flight time, battery consumption, and maneuverability [116]. Methods are presented for
the automatic monitoring of garbage on beaches through the use of drones and object
detection based on YOLOv5, demonstrates the feasibility of automation in the identification and
geolocation of trash objects in drone images, providing key elements for an automated
surveillance and recovery system [117].

Focusing on inspection using AI and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), an innovative object
detection system is presented that uses RGB images from drones to detect and georeference
traffic signs, improving inventories in civil infrastructures. The methodology includes the
creation of a data set, model training (Faster R-CNN) and testing. Despite challenges such as the
lack of labeled data, the computer vision component achieves accurate traffic sign detection
[12]. This type of identification and counting methodology is also used for inventories of spruce
seedlings [13]. As a complementary study, the integration of drones in railway diagnostics is
presented as a significant advance towards the automation and optimization of track inspection,
demonstrating a notable improvement in the speed and efficiency of operations [118].

In the field of infrastructure inspection and maintenance, automated optical inspection of the
Fast Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) has become more efficient thanks to drone technology
and DL techniques. This application guarantees the stable operation of the FAST, providing a
reliable and effective solution for maintenance tasks [119]. On the other hand, the Keras-
RetinaNet model with ResNet 50 is used for object detection, achieving an accuracy of 77.99%.
This innovative approach highlights the potential of neural networks in improving object
detection in aerial environments [8].

Additionally, civil infrastructure assessment has been improved through DL deployed on drones.
These innovative systems have been applied in the automated evaluation of cracks in high-rise
bridge pillars, improving the safety of civil structures. This combination of technologies has
allowed a detailed and accurate evaluation, ensuring the integrity of critical infrastructures [9].

In recent years, the use of drones and robotics has expanded into many commercial uses,
including the construction industry. Drone powered automation has a huge impact on
improving productivity, reducing costs and schedule delays. The use of drones, along with the
application of the IoT and robotics, can have a significant impact on the supply chain and
improve inventory accuracy, leading to faster and more profitable construction projects.
Optimization models are proposed for supply chain management through the accelerated use of
drones and AI in the post-pandemic era. Cutting-edge drone technology can perform rapid
inspections to make inventory control more economical and efficient. While certainly not
suitable for every building surveillance task, drones have many advantages for investigating
buildings for leaks, conducting aerial surveys and addressing security issues more cost-
effectively than manual procedures, leading to an improvement in communication and
collaboration between different stakeholders [120].

As an innovative system in the field of object detection, a real-time system based on the DL
model known as YOLO (you only look once) is implemented. This detector allows the relative
position of each drone in the platoon to be continuously estimated. Each drone is controlled
using a PD proportional derivative (PD) feedback system specifically designed for platooning
[121]. A summary of the most significant references can be found in Table 8.

Table 8. Detection, analysis and inventory reference table. Reference number (Ref); detection
analysis (DA); inventory (I).

4.5. Flight Control and Safety

Fundamental aspects of UAV flight research are visual navigation, flight control, safety, and
route planning.

In terms of visual navigation, optical flow algorithms are used in combination with supervised
learning techniques (KNN, SVM) to calculate flight speed and improve identification of its
motion state [122]. In addition, RL methods are explored that combine the artificial potential
field algorithm with DQN to avoid obstacles during flight, allowing safer and more efficient
navigation of drones [123].

In the aspect of security, countermeasure systems have been developed using RL for Combat
Unmanned Aerial Systems (C-UAS) [124]. These systems employ spoofing and beaconing
algorithms to neutralize GNSS receivers of invading drones, guiding them toward safe kill zones
(SZ). This technique has proven to be effective in identifying and reducing unauthorized drone
flights, thereby improving safety in various scenarios.

Intrusion detection algorithms based on QL (Q-TCID) are proposed to improve the accuracy in
the detection of malicious attacks on Internet of Drones (IoD) systems [125]. This methodology
employs an intelligent dynamic voting algorithm and QL optimization strategies to significantly
reduce the probability of false positives and negatives in intrusion detection, thereby improving
security in environments where drone and IoT integration is crucial.

Route planning and obstacle avoidance are also areas of intense research. Some works have
used RL based on the QL algorithm to improve the efficiency of trajectory planning, especially in
complex environments such as three-dimensional ocean space [87]. These approaches have
allowed drones to perform optimal trajectories and avoid collisions more effectively, even in the
presence of unforeseen obstacles.

Trajectory planning and flight control research is carried out with the purpose of improving
network performance in Drone Base Station applications. It is observed that solutions obtained
by QL and DQN achieve an optimized trajectory and consequently, an improvement in the
performance of the network, adapting its positioning and mobility according to the movements
of the users [126].

For maritime reconnaissance, adaptive route planning for maritime drones has been a constant
challenge. Conventional path planning methods have focused on the mesh routing
environment, which is often unsatisfactory in a continuous maritime space. To address this
problem, an innovative QL enhanced method for maritime drone trajectory planning on the
ocean surface is presented [127]. The proposed approach discretizes the flight environment of
maritime drones into a state space represented by several variables, which significantly helps in
reducing the complexity of the problem. During the training process, a state aware guided
learning strategy is implemented to accelerate the convergence of the algorithm.

In addition, DRL methods have been developed to perform autonomous front view shooting
[128] in the cinematographic field, allowing drones to capture complex dynamic scenes without
human intervention.

By employing a combination of RL and a PID controller, dynamic and robust control is achieved.
The training process involves applying the QL algorithm in a simulated environment, followed by
real-world testing to validate the effectiveness of the model. As a practical application, a drone
is presented navigating through a three dimensional environment full of obstacles,
demonstrating the versatility of this novel control methodology in real world situations [129].

In the context of the integration of drones with the IoT, solutions are proposed that combine
DRL and graph search methods for three-dimensional path planning in complex environments
[130]. These approaches have enabled drones to make autonomous decisions with the same
flexibility as human operators, thus improving efficiency and adaptability in various industrial
applications. A summary of the most significant references can be found in Table 9.
Table 9. Flight control and safety reference table. Reference number (Ref); detection capabilities
(DC); security (S); Internet of Drones (IoD); safety enhancement (SE).

4.6. Hotspots Habilitation

The realization of communication hotspots with drones has emerged as an innovative solution
to improve connectivity and provide services to mobile users. By employing drone-mounted
base stations, we seek to overcome ground infrastructure challenges and maximize mobility to
deliver efficient and improved connections in specific areas.

In a scenario where drone-mounted base stations freely navigate over a macrohotspot to serve
mobile users on the ground, a mobility control algorithm is proposed that significantly improves
packet throughput [131]. The constant movement of drones reduces the distance between base
stations and users, improving the probability of line-of-sight connection. Simulations
demonstrate an 82% increase in average packet throughput and a striking 430% increase in 5th
percentile packet throughput compared to a reference scenario where drones hover over fixed
locations.

UAV-mounted base stations (UAV-BS) [132], also known as drone base stations, have the
potential to overcome the limitations of ground-based base stations. These stations can provide
cost-effective Internet connectivity to users outside the infrastructure and act quickly in the
event of unexpected ground station failures. To optimize UAV-BS mobility and maximize network
performance, an advanced DRL-based solution with a continuous actor–critic approach,
supported by AI technologies, is proposed. Simulation results reveal significant improvements
compared to QL, DQN, and conventional algorithms, achieving a total data rate of up to 45
Mbps and reducing convergence time by 85% compared to traditional methods, clearly
demonstrating the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed DRL-based solution and the
application of AI techniques. The adaptability and continuous learning capability of the DRL and
AI-based solution opens new perspectives for the evolution of autonomous and advanced
systems in the field of mobility and connectivity. A summary of the most significant references
can be found in Table 10.

Table 10. Hotspots habilitation reference table. Reference number (Ref); connection speed (CS);
drones in constant movement (DCM); hotspot generation (HG); base stations (BS).
4.7. Sustainability and Energy Management

One of the main problems that present a challenge today is energy efficiency management.
Energy is essential for all operations carried out by a drone, from takeoff to flight and landing.
This energy efficiency depends on several factors, such as battery capacity, motor efficiency, or
the overall design of the aircraft.

More and more manufacturers are focusing on the design of aircraft capable of much more
efficient energy management [133]. To achieve this goal, AI algorithms are used to manage
energy in drones. These algorithms must be adaptive and must have the capacity to make
decisions in real time, since the aspects that influence the energy consumption of drones are
not only due to internal factors but also due to external factors such as inclement weather.

These models can optimize the use of energy throughout the flight process. One of the most
significant uses is the use of algorithms in charge of planning the most efficient routes whose
objective is to minimize energy consumption by avoiding longer routes or with a number of
obstacles that make the operation unfeasible. On the other hand, these algorithms must also be
able to modify parameters such as flight speed and altitude that can have a negative impact in
terms of energy efficiency.

One of the critical aspects in the energy management of drones is the payload. This must be
managed appropriately to be able to carry out efficient energy optimization [88]. It is very
important to implement AI algorithms focused on maximizing energy efficiency through energy
management. payload. They must also contribute to the weight distribution design to minimize
the resistance that the environment provides to the aircraft. Not only does energy efficiency
have to be studied at the time the aircraft is in flight, it is also very important to observe in
takeoff or landing, since they are the critical points during which the most energy is consumed.
Therefore, AI algorithms whose purpose is to achieve maximum efficiency in takeoff and landing
have been designed [134]. A summary of the most significant references can be found in Table
11.

Table 11. Sustainability and energy management reference table. Reference number (Ref); year
(Y); features (F); number of tests (NT); package weight (PW); emissions (E); emission reductions
(ER); maximum range (MR); network of urban warehouses (NUW); passing stations (PS); gas
reduction (GR); reduction of energy consumption (REC).
5. Discussion

The synergy between AI and drones is emerging as a dynamic and promising field of innovation.
Drones that were originally designed for unmanned aerial operations, have undergone a
significant transformation thanks to the integration of AI algorithms. The growing availability of
onboard computing power and the constant improvement of AI algorithms allows the design of
tasks capable of adapting to changing environments, enabling drones to make complex
decisions in real time.

Security, both in visual navigation and environmental control, emerges as a significant

application. The ability to avoid obstacles and to perform terrain recognition in real time has
become a priority, together with the consideration of software attacks that may compromise
safe drone operations. The identification of drones, especially those that are not catalogued, is
acknowledged as a critical challenge. Although systems based on sound waves and radio
frequency have proven effective with known drone models, uncertainty arises when it comes to
new models. Overcoming identification issues requires AI developments that allow systems to
learn quickly and accurately as they encounter new signals and drone models.

Another fundamental aspect of security is cargo management, with concerns ranging from
onboard resource limitations to personal and material security. This challenge, although largely
negative, highlights the need for continued innovation in drone design and payload
management, because, in this application, drones are the main limiting factor. Due to drone
resource limitation (i.e., battery, payload capacity, energy consumption, weather adversities,
data storage limit, connectivity, and response time), AI algorithms promise the ability to analyze
and process data in real time, allowing drones to make informed decisions about how best to
use their limited resources. For example, ML algorithms can predict energy consumption
patterns and optimize flight paths to maximize range. Furthermore, the ability of AI to adapt to
changes in environmental conditions or assigned tasks contributes to a more effective
optimization of available resources, maximizing the usefulness of these aircraft in various
applications.

Innovative and promising collaborative delivery and distribution paradigms face technical
challenges like fleet coordination, obstacle avoidance in circumstances in which the cargo is
transported by several drones, integration with urban infrastructure, integration with air and
ground regulation standards, and connective security due to an interconnection is required
between the aircraft that affect the operation. Also, last-mile delivery establishes itself as a key
strategy in logistics operations, allowing products to be brought directly to the final destination.
This approach is not without challenges that must be addressed in order to guarantee the
efficiency and effectiveness of this type of operations such as urban congestion, high
operational costs, energy efficiency, package security, fleet location and integration systems,
environmental impact, limitations in the autonomy of drones, restricting regulations, etc.

Drone operations have significantly impacted agriculture, taking advantage of the versatility of
these aircraft and the power of AI algorithms for visual recognition. This combination has
improved the quality of crops by allowing the identification of affected areas, whether due to
infestations, low fertility, risk of fire, or need for fumigation. In addition, drones themselves can
carry out fumigation tasks, highlighting their ability to perform specific operations efficiently in
agricultural environments.

The AI technological paradigm addresses a multitude of uses, all seeming to be relevant,

interesting and beneficial. Regarding sustainability and energy efficiency, there is a need to
create more efficient and lighter batteries, as well as the exploration of alternative energy
sources, achieving a lower environmental impact. To address these challenges effectively, it is
essential to harness the potential of AI algorithms. On the other hand, in terms of regulatory
activity, there is an ethical and legal gap in the massive collection of data, very relevant for AI
paradigms. Preserving privacy and the risks of autonomous decision making raise questions
about the responsibility and regulation of operations, requiring clarifying and robust standards
that guarantee trust and coexistence of the various drone platforms and their operations.

In this context, the introduction of AI presents itself as a potential solution to address some of
these challenges. The ability of AI to optimize fleet coordination, improve energy efficiency, and
ensure safe operations could make the difference in the successful implementation of this
paradigm. Even though it is a novel paradigm that offers many benefits, it must also be
implemented with caution, since it can cause unexpected problems. DL has emerged as a key
enabling technology for drone-based functional uses (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Drone operations based on DL.

6. Conclusions

The integration of AI technologies with UAV systems enables the creation of advanced and
efficient solutions for a wide range of technical applications. The background review in this
paper provides a contextualization of the theoretical foundations and main classifications of IA,
allowing a deeper understanding of how the technology has reached its current state.
This analysis has not only provided an in-depth overview of the algorithms, but also highlights
innovative applications, thus offering a comprehensive view of the technological cutting edge in
this dynamic field. Among the novel applications identified, advanced solutions stand out for
the optimization of trajectories, detection and recognition of objects in real time, assistance in
agricultural operations (crop monitoring, pesticide application, and efficient resource
management), as well as the development of autonomous navigation systems.

In the field of transportation, the emerging application of drones in collaborative transportation

stands out, allowing the efficient delivery of products and services. This collaborative approach
extends to last-mile delivery, where drones play a crucial role in the logistics chain, shortening
distances and optimizing the delivery of goods to final destinations. Furthermore, these
pioneering applications not only enrich our current understanding of the capabilities of AI in
drones, but also outline essential directions for future research. This technological evolution
reflects the growing diversity of uses that these devices can have in different sectors, promoting
efficiency and transforming the way we approach various operations.

The future outlook for this technology is highly promising, although it faces some significant
obstacles. The design of efficient and sustainable batteries stands as a fundamental challenge,
since it constitutes a pillar for the advancement of operations related to AI algorithms and
drones. On the other hand, but no less important, ethical, regulatory, and privacy aspects are
crucial to help establish defined standards in this technical field.

If these essential aspects can be successfully addressed, the future of this technology looks
extremely interesting, both in the logistics field and in the transformation of employment.
Resolving the challenges raised will not only open new possibilities in terms of efficiency and
applications, but will also contribute to forging a solid framework. Consequently, an exciting and
transformative future is foreseen for the integration of AI and drones in both society and
industry.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data
collection and analysis were performed by D.C.-M., J.M.L.-G., J.E. and M.G. The first draft of the
manuscript was written by D.C.-M., and all authors commented on previous versions of the
manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors were supported by the Vitoria-Gasteiz Mobility Lab Foundation, a governmental
organization of the Provincial Council of Araba and the local council of Vitoria-Gasteiz under the
following project grant: “Generación de mapas mediante drones e Inteligencia Computacional”
and “Generación de Inventario Automatizado de Señalética mediante Drones e Inteligencia
Computacional”.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries
can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Caballero-Martin, D.; Lopez-Guede, J.M.; Estevez, J.; Graña, M. Artificial Intelligence Applied to
Drone Control: A State of the Art. Drones 2024, 8, 296. [Link]

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Caballero-Martin D, Lopez-Guede JM, Estevez J, Graña M. Artificial Intelligence Applied to Drone

Control: A State of the Art. Drones. 2024; 8(7):296. [Link]

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Caballero-Martin, Daniel, Jose Manuel Lopez-Guede, Julian Estevez, and Manuel Graña. 2024.
"Artificial Intelligence Applied to Drone Control: A State of the Art" Drones 8, no. 7: 296.
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APA Style

Caballero-Martin, D., Lopez-Guede, J. M., Estevez, J., & Graña, M. (2024). Artificial Intelligence
Applied to Drone Control: A State of the Art. Drones, 8(7), 296.
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