NATIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO

Technological Institute of Orizaba

CAREER:
Chemical Engineering

SUBJECT:
INTEGRAL LABORATORY II

KEY:
7c2C
PRACTICE 8

LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM - LIQUID FOR THREE COMPONENTS

TEAM MEMBERS:

GARCIA MANCILLA ELIUD _18010594

GARCIA VALERO ESTHER_17010578
QUIJADA HERNANDEZ ALEJANDRO_17010635
SANCHEZ ROMERO LUZ YADIRA_16010599
SOLIS GARCIA HANNIA ITZEL_18010679

TEACHER:
JOSE ULISES ROA
FECHA DE REALIZACION: FECHA DE ENTREGA:
29/ SEPTIEMBRE 2021 04/OCTUBRE/2021

Undersecretariat of Higher Education

National Technological Institute of Mexico
ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

PRACTICE No. 6.
PHASE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM LIQUID - VAPOR, FOR
LIQUID-LIQUID SOLUTIONS (TYPE III)

METHANOL - WATER SYSTEM AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.

OBJECTIVE.

Determine the temperature-composition diagram (T-X-Y diagram) and the curve of

equilibrium (X-Y diagram) for the methanol-water system at atmospheric pressure.

COMPETENCIES:
Handle the ebullioscope.
2. Calculate the molar fraction based on methanol.
3. Handle the Refractometer.
4. Determine the refractive index of each sample.
5. Obtain the IR curve - Molar fraction
6. Identify what an ideal solution is.

FUNDAMENT.

By providing heat to a liquid mixture, the molecules of it begin to acquire

sufficient kinetic energy, to transition to the gaseous phase, so there will be two phases: that of
liquid and that of the vapor that will be in equilibrium. In the vapor, the molecules of the
more volatile liquid.

INTRODUCTION.

When heat is applied to a liquid, its molecules begin to acquire

sufficient kinetic energy to transition to the gas phase, so there will be two phases: that of
liquid and the vapor that will be in equilibrium.

Equilibrium implies a situation in which no changes occur with

regarding time. In reality, a true state of equilibrium is never achieved due to
continuous variations of the surroundings. In scientific studies, it is considered that it was achieved
the balance when changes cannot be determined with measurement instruments
available.

To exemplify the liquid-vapor equilibrium, consider the boiling of water.

liquid at atmospheric pressure. It is assumed that the operation is carried out in such a way that the
liquid and vapor are intimately mixed all the time. If the supply is removed
of heat and the container is completely insulated, there is no tendency for it to
present changes. The temperature, pressure, volume, etc. of each phase will not vary with the
time, the system is in phase equilibrium, however at a macroscopic level the
ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

conditions are not static. The molecules that are in a phase at a given moment
they are not the same in that phase for a shorter time interval; however, the speed
the average rate of molecules passing from one phase to the other is the same in both directions,
there is no transfer of matter between the phases, so it is considered that there is a
dynamic equilibrium.
When heat is provided to a solution of two liquids, it evaporates.
partially and the component that has the highest vapor pressure (the most volatile) is
focuses on the vapor phase, causing a difference in composition between the liquid and the
vapor in equilibrium.
An example of liquid-vapor equilibrium in a mixture of miscible liquids is
it precisely has in the development of this practice when using the static ebullioscope type
Modified Otmar. With this equipment, the equilibrium compositions of the
liquid phase and vapor phase at atmospheric pressure.
The liquid-vapor equilibrium data have great practical applications and can be
report adequately through diagrams such as those found and shown in the
Figures 7.1 and 7.2. The points a, b, c, and d represent the behavior of the pure components; the
horizontal lines between the liquid-vapor equilibrium lines connect the compositions of
equilibrium with given values of temperature and pressure. Starting from the temperature diagram-
composition can build an additional graph of X as a function of Y at pressure or at
constant temperature (X-Y diagram) that will typically remain as shown in the
Fig. 7.3 where X and Y represent the molar fractions of the liquid and vapor phases
respectively.

Fig. 7.1.- Temperature-composition diagram Fig. 7.2.- Temperature-composition diagram

constant pressure section. reaction at constant temperature.

Fig. 7.3.- X-Y chart

Orizaba Institute of Technology

In this practice, equilibrium data will be obtained to construct the diagram.

temperature-composition (T-X-Y diagram) and the liquid-vapor equilibrium curve (diagram
X-Y) at constant pressure.

LABORATORY SAFETY.

Be careful with the handling of the ebullioscopes and the 3-step key to avoid spills.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT REAGENTS

2 Ebullometers 60 ml Methanol
2 Grills with magnetic stirring. 60 ml Distilled Water
2 Universal Supports
2 Thermo wells
2 Universal Pliers
2 Magnetic Capsules
2 Thermometers from -10 to 150 °C
7 hose sections for the connections
2 beakers of 100 ml
2 Burettes
1 Refractometer
1 Thermoregulator
1 metal bathtub for the thermostatic bathroom.
24 small bottles with caps for samples
Capillaries
Cotton
Labels.

PROCEDURE.

1. Assemble the equipment as shown in Fig. 7.4. It is very important to check that the water
cold must be flowing through the condensers of the ebulliometers to prevent leaks of
vapor.
2. Set the thermostatic bath and control the temperature to 25 °C
3. Label the small bottles in the following way (so that the label does not come off)
from the jar when it is placed in the thermostatic bath):
Del1-A (L)al6-A(L)y del1-A (V)al6-A (V), for THE EBULLIOSCOPE NUMBER 1.
Del1-B (L)al6-B(L) and del1-B (V)al6-B (V), for the EBULLIOMETER NUMBER 2.
4. Then, using a burette, deposit 30 ml of methanol in boiling flask number 1 and with
another burette deposit 30 ml of water in the ebullimeter number 2.
NOTE: Check that the two-step key is closed and the three-step key is in the position
of reflux.
5. Calentar a manera que alcance la temperatura de ebullición de la sustancia y tomar en el
bottle1-A (L) sample of the liquid phase, and in the bottle1-A (V) sample of the phase
vapor, from the ebullioscope number 1.
Technological Institute of Orizaba

In flask 1-B (L) a sample of the liquid phase is taken, and in flask 1-B (V) Vapor
Sample of the vapor phase, from ebulliometer number 2.
6. Once the samples are taken, add 5 ml of water to ebullioscope number 1, and 5 ml of
methanol to the ebullioscope number 2.
7. Let them reach boiling temperature and take samples again, both from the phase
liquid like vapor.
8. Continue until all the samples indicated in the data tables are taken.
experimental.
9. The samples that are being taken are placed in the thermostatic bath, on one side the
from the first system and from the other side those of the second system, ensuring that only the
part that contains the sample, be careful that the label does not fall off
identification of each bottle.
10. Determine the refractive index of each sample.
11. With the value of the refractive index, you enter the curve that was obtained in the experiment.
"Analytical Methods" and the molar fraction or composition for each sample is obtained.

Fig. 7.4. EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID-VAPOR BALANCE.

ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

NEW FOUNDATION.
Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) describes the distribution of achemical species between the
vapor phase and a liquid phase.
The concentration of a vapor in contact with its liquid, especially in equilibrium, is
often expressed in terms ofpressure
of steamthat will be apressure
partial(a part of the total pressure of
gas) if there are other gases present with it
vapor.
The equilibrium vapor pressure of a
liquid depends generally on great
temperature measurement. In equilibrium
vapor-liquid a liquid with
individual components in certain
concentrations will have an equilibrium of
vapor in which the concentrations or partial pressures of the vapor components have
certain values depending on all the concentrations of the liquid component and the
temperature. The opposite is also true: if a vapor with components at certain
concentrations or partial pressures are in vapor-liquid equilibrium with their liquid,
then the concentrations of components in the liquid will be determined depending on
the vapor concentrations and the temperature. The equilibrium concentration of each
The component in the liquid phase is often different from its concentration (or vapor pressure)
in the vapor phase, but there is a relationship. The VLE concentration data can be
determined experimentally, or computed or approximated with the help of such theories
howRaoult's law, Dalton's law, andHenry's law.
Such vapor-liquid equilibrium information is useful in the design ofcolumnsfordistillation,
especiallyfractional distillation, which is a particular specialty of theengineer
chemical.123Distillation is a process used to separate totally or partially the
components of a mixture by boiling (vaporization) followed bycondensation. The
Distillation takes advantage of the concentration differences of the components in the liquid phases.
and vapor. In mixtures that contain two or more components, the concentrations of each
one often expresses themselves asmolar fractionsThe mole fraction of a component
given of a mixture in a particular phase (either the vapor phase or the liquid phase) is the
number ofmolesof that component in thatphasedivided by the total number of molars of
all the components in that phase.
Binary mixtures are those that have two components while three-component mixtures
components are called ternary mixtures. There may be VLE data for mixtures with still
more components, but such data is often difficult to display graphically, at this type
mixes are known as multicomponent. The VLE data is a function of the
total pressure, like 1atmor any pressure at which the process is carried out.
When a temperature is reached such that the sum of the equilibrium vapor pressures of
the liquid components become equal to the total pressure of the system (otherwise it is
smaller), then the vapor bubbles generated by the liquid begin to displace the gas
that maintained the total pressure, and it is said that the mixtureto boilThis temperature is called
"boiling point" of the liquid mixture at the given pressure. (It is assumed that the total pressure is
ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

maintains constant by adjusting the total volume of the system to adapt to changes of
specific volumes that accompany boiling.) The boiling point at a pressure
The point of boiling at 1 atm is called the "normal boiling point" of the liquid mixture.
THERMODYNAMIC DESCRIPTION OF VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
The field of the thermodynamicsdescribe when vapor-liquid equilibrium is possible, and its
properties. Much of the analysis depends on whether the vapor and the liquid consist of a single
component, or if they are mixtures.

DIAGRAMS OF THE BOILING POINT:

The VLE binary mixture data at a certain global pressure, such as 1 atm, showing the
vapor and liquid concentrations of the mole fraction boiling at various temperatures,
they can be shown as agraphbidimensional called boiling point diagram.
The mole fraction of component 1 in the mixture can be represented by the symbol x.1. The
mole fraction of component 2, represented by x2is related to1in a mixture
binary as follows:
x1+x2= 1
In multi-component mixtures in general with components N, this becomes:
x1+x2+ ... +xn= 1
Technological Institute of Orizaba

BOILING POINT DIAGRAM

The previous equilibrium equations are typically applied to each phase (liquid or
vapor) individually, but the result
it can be graphed in a single diagram. In
a binary diagram of the boiling point, the
temperature (T) is graphed vs. x1. To anyone
temperature given where both phases are
presents, the vapor with a certain fraction
molar is in equilibrium with the liquid with a
certain molar fraction. The two fractions of
moles often differ. These fractions of
vapor and liquid are represented by two
points on the same horizontal isotherm line
(constantT).
When a complete range of is graphed
temperatures in comparison with the
Vapor and liquid fractions of the moon yield two lines (usually curved). The
lower, which represents the mole fraction of the liquid in boiling at different temperatures, is
denomination curvebubble pointThe upper part, which represents the mole fraction of the vapor at
various temperatures, it is called the dew point curve.1
These two curves necessarily intersect when the mixture becomes a single one.
component, that is, when x1= 0. (y x2= 1, pure component 2) or x1= 1. (y x2= 0,
pure component). The temperatures at those two points correspond to the points of
boiling of each of the two pure components.
For certain pairs of substances, the two curves also coincide at some point.
strictly inter1= 0 yx1= 1.
When they meet, they meet tangentially; the dew point temperature
it is always above the boiling point temperature for a given composition
when they are not equal.
The meeting point is called aazeotropefor that particular pair of substances. They
characterized by an azeotropic temperature and an azeotropic composition, often
expressed as a mole fraction. There can be maximum boiling azeotropes, where
the temperature of the azeotropes is maximum at the boiling curves, or azeotropes of
minimum boiling point, where the temperature of the azeotropes is minimum in the curves of
boiling.

QUESTIONNAIRE.
1.- What is a phase equilibrium diagram?
A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the equilibrium conditions in
function of magnitudes such as the concentration of solutions, temperature, and pressure.
From a mathematical point of view, a graph G=(v,e) is a discrete model composed of
a set of vertices v and a set of edges e that connect the vertices; in the case of the
ORIZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

phase diagrams the vertices represent pure components, compounds, points

eutectic, transition points, and multiple saturation points, etc., while the edges
they represent saturation curves and distribution lines.

2.- What does it mean by state of equilibrium?

Equilibrium implies a situation in which no changes occur over time.
In reality, a true state of equilibrium is never reached due to continuous
variations of the surroundings. In scientific studies, it is considered that it was achieved the
equilibrium when changes cannot be determined with measurement instruments
available.

3.-Mention an example of liquid-vapor equilibrium.

An example of liquid-vapor equilibrium in a mixture of miscible liquids is found.
precisely in the development of this practice when using the static ebullioscope type Otmar
modified. With this equipment, the equilibrium compositions of the phase will be determined.
liquid and vapor phase at atmospheric pressure.

What can we find with the data in the Equilibrium diagram?

Liquid-vapor equilibrium data have great practical application and can be reported.
adequately by diagrams such as those found and shown in Figures 7.1
7.2. Points a, b, c, and d represent the behavior of the pure components; the lines
horizontal lines between the liquid-vapor equilibrium connect the compositions of
equilibrium with given values of temperature and pressure. From the temperature diagram-
composition an additional graph of X as a function of Y can be built at pressure or at
constant temperature (X-Y diagram) that will typically remain as shown in the
Fig.7.3 where X and Y represent the mole fractions of the liquid and vapor phases
respectively

5.- What is an equilibrium curve?

The equilibrium curves and boiling point diagrams. The temperature is represented in
the ordered values and the concentrations in mole fractions, on the x-axis. The diagram consists of
two curves whose ends coincide. Any point located on the upper line
represents vapor that begins to condense at any temperature. The concentration
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from the first droplet that forms at a certain temperature in where there is a mixture
saturated with liquid and vapor.
Undersecretariat of Higher Education
National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico
Technological Institute of Orizaba
 TABLE No. 1 OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA.
Temp.
Samples of Vol. Volume of water Temp. Boiling vapor. [Link]. [Link]. I. R. [Link]
A (L) and (V) methanol boiling. Liquid. vapor. vape.
1 30 ml 0 ml 96 96 96 1.331 1.331 0
2 “ 5 87 87 87 1.3341 1.3394 0.32
3 “ 5 83 83 73 1.3367 1.3395 0.4
4 “ 5 79 79 79 1.3384 1.34 0.65
5 “ 5 77 77 77 1.34 1.3362 0.85
6 “ 5 75 75 75 1.34 1.3362 0.86
75.51395 75.51395 75.51765 0.9
75.06353 74.915087 74.91508 0.95
5
74.686 74.371 74.371 1

TABLE No.2 OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA.

Samples of Methanol volume Water volume Boiling point. [Link]. [Link]. I. R. F. molar vapor.
B (L) and (V) liq.
1 0 ml 30 ml 96 96 1.335 1.332 0
2 5 “ 87 87 1.3384 1.332 0.02
3 5 “ 83 83 1.345 1.3341 0.2
4 5 “ 79 79 1.3405 1.3373 0.32
5 5 “ 77 77 1.3494 1.3383 0.36
6 5 “ 75 75 1.3386 1.34 0.4
70.22491 74.813495 0.65
68.79604 67.02248 0.8
68.60636 61.21402 0.9
69.027 54.914 1

CALCULATIONS AND GRAPHS.

1. Construct the T-X-Y diagram at atmospheric pressure.

2. Build the X-Y diagram at atmospheric pressure.

Undersecretary of Higher Education

National Technological Institute of Mexico
 Technological Institute of Orizaba

Methanol-water system at atmospheric pressure (excel)

Psat= 101.325 KPa

Benzene 760.0021002 mmHg
I don't understand 760.0021002 mmHg
T = (B/A + Log10P) - C
Methanol 64.50362039 Centgrados
Tagua= 99.99690683 degrees Celsius
temperature delta 3.943698493 Degrees Celsius

X1=(P-psat2)/
Y1=x1p1sat/P T P1 sat P2 sat y2
(Psat1-Psat2) x2
99.9969068 354.396042
-9.3612E-12 -3.27419E-11 3 7 101.325 1 1
96.0532083 312.436076
0.060128544 0.185406625 4 6 87.81910881 0.939871456 0.814593375
92.1095098 274.618190
0.128163938 0.34735898 4 2 75.85009865 0.65264102
0.871836062
88.1658113 240.627942
0.205574663 0.488201414 5 8 65.2773638 0.794425337 0.511798586
84.2221128 210.165760
0.294142058 0.610102041 6 2 55.96935075 0.705857942 0.389897959
80.2784143 182.946912
0.396035634 0.715060415 6 6 47.80332263 0.603964366 0.284939585
76.3347158 158.701449
0.513908624 0.804915307 7 5 40.66510434 0.486091376 0.195084693
72.3910173 137.174092
0.651019774 0.881352545 8 4 34.44880968 0.348980226 0.118647455
68.4473188
0.811389354 0.945912904 9 118.124085 29.05655189 0.188610646 0.054087096
64.5036203
1 1 9 101.325 24.39813909 3.38507E-11 8.15092E-12

Graph T-xy
Technological Institute of Orizaba

105

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
X-Y

Graphs obtained using Thermosolver

OBSERVATIONS.

NOTE: Make the notes and add photos of the relevant observations.

Analyzed system: Ethanol-Water at constant pressure

Materials:
Ball with lateral detachment
Heating blanket
TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF ORIZABA

Condenser
Thermometer
Ethanol
Water
Pycnometer

A liquid-vapor equilibrium analysis is conducted using a simple distillation setup.

through an ethanol-water solution in such a way that different samples are prepared with
different compositions of the reactants and this way their fractions can be obtained
molars through the existing volume in each sample.

Each of the samples present must be measured for density, in this case by means of
a pycnometer. With the density of each distillate, the curve regression is used
calibration, to obtain the molar composition of the experimental distillate.
Technological Institute of Orizaba

Where the T-xy diagram can be obtained using the Antoine equation such that the
the resulting diagram in this practice is the following:

Proposed Video:
[Link]
IIMICAYBIOLOGY

IDENTIFICATION AND TREATMENT OF GENERATED WASTES.

Anotar la cantidad de Residuos generados en la práctica, y describir el y/o los tratamientos

applied.

CONCLUSIONES:(Mínimo media cuartilla, claras y precisas; proponiendo resultados ES

PERSONAL.)
ORITZABA TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

GENERAL CONCLUSION.
Equilibrium implies a situation in which no changes occur with respect to
time. In reality, a true state of equilibrium is never attained due to continuous
variations of the surroundings. In scientific studies, it is considered that equilibrium has been reached.
when the changes cannot be determined with the measuring instruments
available. To exemplify the liquid-vapor equilibrium, the boiling of water is considered.
liquid a pressure atmospheric.

The temperature, pressure, volume, etc. of each phase will not vary over time, the system
It is in phase equilibrium; however, at the macroscopic level, the conditions are not.
static. When heat is provided to a solution of two liquids, it evaporates.
partially and the component with the highest vapor pressure concentrates in the phase of
vapor, causing a difference in composition between the liquid and the vapor in equilibrium.
When plotting a full range of temperatures compared to the fractions of
vapor and liquid of the spot, two lines are obtained (generally curved). The lower one, which
it represents the mole fraction of the liquid in boiling at different temperatures, it is called
curvebubble pointThe upper one, which represents the mole fraction of the vapor at various
temperatures, referred to as the dew point curve.

PERSONAL CONCLUSIONS
QUIJADA HERNANDEZ ALEJANDRO
As we can observe, the balance between vapors and liquids requires different conditions.
factors to carry out, we will refer to these factors as specific conditions
which will make it possible to achieve a state of balance, we can observe that within
these conditions mention the 3 that need to be considered, such as
Temperature, pressure, and the composition of the components of our mixture, In the
vapor-liquid equilibrium, we can see that a liquid with individual components
depending on their concentrations, it will have a vapor equilibrium in which its
Concentrations or partial pressures of the vapor components have certain values.
depending on all the concentrations of the liquid component and the temperature. By
On the other side, we also have the following: if a steam with components at certain
concentrations or partial pressures are in vapor-liquid equilibrium with their liquid,
then the concentrations of components in the liquid will be determined depending on
the vapor concentrations and the temperature. Also within the practice we
We were able to learn about equilibrium diagrams and other tools.
such as software that provides us with help to carry them out, like in this case
Technological Institute of Orizaba

a program called Termosolver. We can conclude by saying that it is important to know about
about the diagrams since with these we can provide a solution and understand the reason for the
equilibrium state and the way to provide a solution to achieve it or the way to interpret
the results obtained

ESTHER GARCIA VALERO_17010578

In conclusion, I can say that the equilibrium between the vapor and the liquid of a compound is
represented by the ratio of moles of vapor and liquid at a given temperature,
this balance can also be studied from its vapor pressures. The ideal solution
is defined as one that obeys Raoult's Law over the entire concentration interval. The
Raoult's law states that the relationship between the vapor pressure of each component in a
The ideal solution depends on the vapor pressure of each individual component and of the
mole fraction of each component in the solution. Real solutions, on the other hand, do not
they adjust to Raoult's Law. The system analyzed for a temperature vs.
composition generates a bow where Liquid and Vapor will be in equilibrium.
where liquid A is more volatile than liquid B. The fraction in the vapor has increased.
molar of the second, continuing the distillation it will be observed that the vapor rich in A is greater in
proportion to its liquid; decreasing the molar fraction of A. Real solutions fit better
to the Law of Raoult when the solution is more diluted. With an appropriate graph, it can be
determine if azeotropes are produced in distillation and at what point they are found.

SOLIS GARCIA HANNIA ITZEL

The trajectories in ternary diagrams allow for the tracking and recording of variation
of the components and their condition along different trajectories, in addition to indicating the
region and position on a specific property when three components are involved
a mixture or showing compositions of balance between the phases.

It is observed that systems with a minimum in the vapor pressure curve exhibit a
maximum on the temperature-composition curve and vice versa. Azeotropic mixtures are
two or more chemical compounds that boil at a constant temperature and behave
as if there were only one compound, those are known as positive azeotropes
minimum boiling point and showing positive deviations from Raoult's law and azeotropes
negatives to those that present negative deviations from this law, but all these are very
important in the processes of distillation of substances in which the search is generally for the
total or partial separation of a liquid solution into its pure components.

It is important to emphasize that in this practice a new tool was used called
Thermosolver that facilitated the creation of the graphs.

SANCHEZ ROMERO LUZ YADIRA

Binary mixtures are those with two components, while mixtures with three
components are called ternary mixtures. Binary mixtures are a function of the
total pressure, such as 1 atm or regardless of the pressure at which it is being executed
process. When a temperature is reached such that the sum of the equilibrium vapor of the
liquid components becomes equal to the total pressure of the system, then the bubbles of
TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF ORIZABA

Vapor from the liquid begins to move the gas of the total pressure, and the mixture is said to boil.
This temperature is known as the 'boiling point' of the liquid mixture at the given pressure.
The boiling point at a total pressure of 1 atm is referred to as the 'normal boiling point.'
from the liquid mixture.

GRACÍA MANCILLA ELIUD

During this practice, we were able to observe the application of the previously acquired knowledge.
obtained as vapor pressure, liquid-vapor equilibrium systems, molar fractions,
etc. So it is important to emphasize the application of the pressure equilibrium diagram.
constant in laboratory practice because it is theoretically understood that
behavior due to the fact that graphically we give an interpretation to the displayed data
through the diagram, however, it is very different to observe the physical behavior it produces.
that the equilibrium diagram is carried out. In addition, comparisons can be made
behaviors shown in the experimental system with theoretical systems with the help of
software like thermosolver that is very helpful if we start working with different
types of binary mixtures. Previously, work has been done with files in Excel where also
this type of simulations of binary systems has been carried out and it has been done
obtaining the composition diagrams in each of them, so that they have been
I used different tools for the development of this practice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: (Minimum 5 sources of information). It must include the following data:

Nombre del libro, Nombre del autor por orden alfabético, Edición, Páginas consultadas.
[Link]
vapor-liquid equilibrium, -Diagram of
Equilibrium: For each component of a vapor in
a vertical axis.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]