BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION OF A DC POWER SUPPLY

An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the
load terminals irrespective of changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. The
primary function of a regulated power supply is to convert an AC power into a steady DC
power. The regulated supply is sometimes called as a linear power supply. The block
diagram of regulated power supply is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Block diagram description of a dc power supply

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:
1. Transformer
2. Rectifier
3. Smoother / Filter.
4. Regulator
Transformer:
A transformer modifies the alternating current (AC) mains voltage to a required value, and
its primary function is to step up or step down the voltage.
Rectifier:
The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. The
input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is pulsating DC. Rectification process can
be carried out for the entire cycle or only for half-cycle. Broadly there are two types of
rectifiers such as i) half- wave rectifier, and ii) full-wave rectifier. Full-wave rectifier is
used for full wave rectification and half-wave rectifier provides rectification for half-
cycle.
Smoother/ Filter:
The rectifier's output is pulsating DC with large ripple content and hence, the rectifier's
output is undesirable. A filter is used to provide a pure ripple-free DC. The filter circuit
converts the pulsating DC voltage into a constant direct voltage with almost zero ripple
content. Different types of filter circuits such as capacitor (C) filter, choke input (L) filter,
and LC filter.
Regulator:
The output voltage may change or fluctuate due to any change in the input ac voltage or the
change in load . This problem can be eliminated with the help of a regulator. A regulator
maintains the output constant even when changes at the input voltage or any other changes
occur. Different types of regulator circuits such as Zener diode operating in Zener region,
transistor in series and IC regulators are available.
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FILTER CIRCUITS
A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output but allows
the d.c. component to reach the load.

Fig. 5
A filter circuit should be installed between the rectifier and the load as shown in Fig. 5. A
filter circuit is generally a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C). A capacitor
passes a.c. readily but does not pass d.c. (For d.c., f = 0, ∴ capacitive reactance (Xc) =
1/2πfc = ∞) at all.

Capacitor (C) filter:

Fig. 6(i) shows a typical capacitor filter circuit. It consists of a capacitor C placed across
the rectifier output in parallel with load RL. The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier as
shown in Fig. 6(ii) is applied across the capacitor.

As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load.
At the end of quarter cycle [Point A in below fig], the capacitor is charged to the peak value Vm
of the rectifier voltage. Now, the rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As this occurs, the
capacitor discharges through the load and voltage across it (i.e. across parallel combination
of R-C) decreases as shown by the line AB in Fig. 7. The voltage across load will decrease only
slightly because immediately the next voltage peak comes and recharges the capacitor. This
process is repeated again and again and the output voltage waveform becomes ABCDEFG.
It may be seen that very little ripple is left in the output. Moreover, output voltage is higher
as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output voltage.

Fig. 7
ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR/STABILISER

OFF state

ON state

Fig. 8 Zener Diode Characteristics

(i) “On” state:

When reverse voltage across a zener diode is equal to or more than break down voltage VZ,
the current increases very sharply as shown in Fig. 8. In this region, the curve is almost
vertical. It means that voltage across zener diode is constant at VZ even though the current
through it changes. Therefore, in the breakdown region, an ideal zener diode can be
represented by a battery of voltage VZ as shown in Fig. 9(ii). Under such conditions, the
zener diode is said to be in the “ON” state.

Fig. 9
(ii) “OFF” state:
When the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than VZ but greater than 0 V, the
zener diode is in the “OFF” state. Under such conditions, the zener diode can be represented
by an open- circuit as shown in Fig. 10(ii).
 Fig. 10
Voltage Regulator functioning:
A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source
whose the input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range. The circuit
arrangement is shown in Fig. 11(i). The zener diode of zener voltage VZ is reverse
connected across the load RL across which constant output is desired.

Fig. 11
(i) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, the zener
diode is equivalent to a battery VZ as shown in Fig. 11(ii). It is clear that output voltage
remains constant at VZ (= E0). The excess voltage is dropped across the series resistance
R. This will cause an increase in the value of total current I. The zener will conduct the
increase of current in I while the load current remains constant. Hence, output voltage E0
remains constant irrespective of the changes in the input voltage Ei.
(ii) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This
will cause an increase in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source
because drop in R (and hence source current I) will not change as the zener is within its
regulating range. The additional load current will come from a decrease in zener current
IZ. Consequently, the output voltage stays at constant value.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

Fig.12 Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system

The block diagram of generalized electronics instrumentation system as shown in Fig., in

which number ofelements worked together to perform a desired function accurately i.e. to
measure the measurand quantity and display it or record it.
Measurand (physical quantity or electrical quantity):
 The physical or electrical quantity which is to be measurand is called as measurand. If
the input to the instrumentation is parameter like pressure, force, level, strain,
displacement, temperature, flow, velocity etc. then these parameters are physical
measurand. These measurand are applied to the transducer element.
 If the input is current, voltage and frequency then these parameters are called electrical
measurand. These measurand are applied to the electrical conversion element.
Transducer and electrical conversion elements:
 If the measurand is physical quantity then it is converted into equivalent electrical signal
with help of element which is called transducer.
 If the measurand is electrical signal like voltage, current or frequency then it is given
to the electrical conversion element which convert the signal into more suitable form
of signals.
Signal processing or signal conditioning:
 In electronic instrumentation system, filter, modulator, A/D converters, D/A converter,
amplifiers, integrators, differentiators are the important signal conditioningcircuits.
 This stage is required to convert the transducer output into an electrical quantity
suitable for proper operation of the last stage or indicator.
Data transmission element:
 This element provides a transmission path for the modified signals to travel from
transducer element to the rest of instrumentation elements like recorders, controllers,
displays etc.
 In electronic instrumentation system, typically the transmission path is a conducting
line (i.e. electrical cables).
Data presentation element:
 Function performed by this stage may be demodulation, amplification, filtering, A/D
conversion etc.
 This element modifies the signals in such a way that the signals are accepted by
recorders, displays, indicators, printers, announcing systems etc. The output of the
 data presentation element is provided to the recorders, controllers, and indicators as
per the requirement of the user or operator or observer.
Output devices:
 The last stage of instrumentation system is required to provide the information about
the measurand for immediate reorganization by the operator whatever output is
presented on indicator.
 If the system is control system in that case the measured data not only displayed or
recorded but also compared with some reference value and control action is
generatedwhich is used to remove the error.
Power supply:
 This is a common unit for all instrumentation system. This provides power to all
elements working in the instrumentation setup.

DIGITAL VOLTMETER (DVM)

Voltmeter is an electrical measuring instrument used to measure potential difference
between two points. The voltage to be measured may be AC or DC. Two types of voltmeters
are available for the purpose of voltage measurement i.e. analog and digital.
Analog voltmeters generally contain a dial with a needle moving over it according
to the measure andhence displaying the value of the same. Digital voltmeters display the
value of AC orDC voltage being measured directly as discrete numerical instead of a pointer
deflection on a continuous scale as in analog instruments. A digital voltmeter (DVM)
displays the value of a.c. or d.c voltage being measured directly as discrete numerals in the
decimal number system.

The use of digital voltmeters increases the speed with which readings can be taken.
Also, the output of digital voltmeters can be fed to memory devices for storage and future
computations. A digital voltmeter is a versatile and accurate voltmeter which has many
laboratory applications. On account of developments in the integrated circuit (IC)
technology,it has been possible to reduce the size, power requirements and cost of digital
voltmeters. In fact, for the same accuracy, a digital voltmeter now is less costly than its
analog counterpart. The decrease in the size of DVMs on account of the use of ICs, the
portability of the instruments has increased.

Fig.13 Block diagram of a Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

Working:
• Unknown voltage signal (I/P) is fed to the pulse generator which generates a train of
rectangular pulse whose width is proportional to the input signal.
• Output of pulse generator is fed to one leg of the AND gate and the input signal to the other
leg of the AND gate is a train of pulses.
• AND gate gives high output only when both the inputs are high. When a train pulse is fed
to it along with rectangular pulse, it provides us an output having train pulses with duration
as same as the rectangular pulse from the pulse generator. Then, Output of AND gate is
positive triggered train of duration same as the width of the pulsegenerated by the pulse
generator.
• The positive triggered train is fed to the inverter which converts it into a negative triggered
train.
• Output of the inverter is fed to a counter which counts the number of triggers in the duration
which is proportional to the input signal i.e. voltage under measurement.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an versatile laboratory instrument used for studying wave shape
of alternating current and voltage as well as for the measurement of voltage, power and
frequency. The waveform is generated in such a way that the amplitude of the signal is
represented along Y-axis and the variation in the time is represented along X-axis. Essentially,
an oscilloscope consists of the following components as shown in Fig.14.
1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)
2. Low and high voltage (LV & HV) power supply
3. Time base generator
4. Vertical and horizontal amplifiers

Fig.14 Block diagram of a CRO

1. CATHODE RAY TUBE
It is the heart of a CRO. It is used to bombard electrons towards the fluorescent screen. CRT
is an evacuated tube where an electron gun is fitted, which emits electrons towards the
fluorescent screen. A detailed representation of a CRT is given in Fig.15. The major
components of CRT are electron gun, deflection system, fluorescent screen and evacuated
glass envelop.

Fig.15 Schematic of cathode ray tube (CRT)

a) Electron Gun:
Electron gun is a source of electrons. It provides a sharply focused electron beam directed
towards the fluorescent coated screen. It consists of a heated cathode, control grid, pre-
accelerating anode, focusing anode, and an accelerating anode. The thermally heated cathode
emits electrons in many directions. The control grid provides an axial direction for the electron
beam and controls the number and speed of electrons in the beam. The momentum of the
electrons determines the intensity or brightness of the light emitted from the fluorescent coating
due to the electron bombardment. Because electrons are negatively charged, a repulsion force
is created by applying a negative voltage to the control grid, to adjust their number and speed.
A more negative voltage results in a smaller number of electrons in the beam and hence
decreased brightness of the beam spot. Since the electron beam consists of many electrons, the
beam tends to diverge. This is because the similar (negative) charges on the electrons repulse
each other. To compensate for such repulsion forces, an adjustable electrostatic field is created
between two cylindrical anodes, called the focusing anodes. The variable positive voltage on
the second anode cylinder is therefore used to adjust the focus or sharpness of the bright spot.

(b) Deflection System:

The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently connected to the
ground (zero volt), whereas the other plate of each set is connected to input signals or triggering
signal of the CRO and the electron beam passes through the deflection plates. As shown in
Fig.16, a positive voltage applied to the 'Y' input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect
vertically upward, due to attraction forces, while a negative voltage applied to the 'Y' input
terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically downward, due to repulsion forces.
Similarly, a positive voltage applied to the 'X' input terminal
will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the
right, while a negative voltage applied to the 'X' input terminal
will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the
left of the screen. The amount of vertical or horizontal
defection is directly proportional to the corresponding applied
voltage. When the electrons hit the screen, the phosphor emits
light and a visible light spot is seen on the screen. Since the
amount of deflection is proportional to the applied voltage,
actually the voltages Vy and Vx determine the coordinates of
the bright spot created by the electron beam. Fig. 16 CRO Screen
(c) Fluorescent Screen:
The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when bombardment by
electrons ceases i.., when the signal becomes zero. The time period for which the trace remains
on the screen after the signal becomes zero is known as persistence. The persistence may be as
short as a few microseconds, or as long as tens of seconds or even minutes. The screen is coated
with a fluorescent material called phosphor which emits light when bombarded by electrons.
There are various phosphors available which differ in colour, persistence and efficiency.
(d) Evacuated Glass Envelope:
All the components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called envelope. This
allows the emitted electrons to move about freely from one end of the tube to the other end.

2. LOW AND HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

The power supply block provides the voltages required by CRT to generate and accelerate an
electron beam and voltages required by other circuits of the oscilloscope like horizontal
amplifier, vertical amplifier etc.
There are two sections of a power supply block. The high voltage section and low voltage
section. The high voltages of the order of 1000 to 1500V are required by CRT. Such high
negative voltages are used for CRT. The low voltage is required for the heater of the electron
gun, which emits the electrons. This is a positive voltage of the order of few hundred volts.
3. TIME BASE GENERATOR
The generator which generates a wave form which is responsible for the movement of a spot-
on screen horizontally is called time base generator or sweep generator. This produces a saw-
tooth wave form which is used as horizontal deflection voltage of CRT.
4. VERTICAL AMPLIFIER
The vertical amplifier receives the input from the signal which is to be measured and then
amplifies it so that the signal of high intensity is supplied to the vertical deflection plate.
If a low-intensity signal strikes the vertical deflection plate, the electron beam will not be
deflected effectively to create the bright spots on desired points on the screen. Thus, the vertical
amplifier is a significant device.

5. HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIER
The horizontal amplifier generates the signal which provides voltage to horizontal deflection
plates. The horizontal deflection plates deflect the beam along the horizontal direction. This is
helpful to create the waveform along with the time domain.
The horizontal amplifier is the crucial part. This is because the deflection of the electron beam
in the horizontal direction will be effective only when the signal applied from the output of the
horizontal amplifier is high enough to create the bright spots at the desired location on the
phosphor screen.

6. DELAY LINE CIRCUIT

When the signal from the vertical amplifier is fed to the vertical deflection plates, then some
part of the amplified signal is supplied to the time base generator. This trigger pulse generated
from the time-based generator is amplified with the help of the horizontal amplifier.
After this, it is fed to horizontal deflection plates. This process requires approximately
100ns. Thus, it is crucial to delay the signal generated by the vertical amplifier too in order to
maintain synchronization.