Math 1031: Applied Mathematics I

Chapter 5: Integration

Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)

Email: tilahunak@[Link]

School of Aerospace Engineering

Ethiopian Aviation University

March 21, 2024

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 1 / 85
Outline of Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Integration

5.1. Antiderivatives; Indefinite integrals

5.2. Techniques of integration: Integration by substitution and Integration
by parts, trigonometric integrals; Integration by Trigonometric substi-
tution; Integration by partial fractions
5.3. Definite integrals: Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.4. Application of the integral: Area (Review). The volume of solid of
revolution; Arc length
5.5. Improper Integrals

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 2 / 85

Antiderivatives
Definition
An antiderivative or a primitive integral of a function f is a differentiable function
F whose derivative is equal to the f and stated mathematically as F 0 = f .
The process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite
integration).
So a function F (x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f (x) if and
only if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f .

Theorem
If F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x), then F (x) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant, is
also an anti-derivative of f (x).

Example
Let f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x. Then F1 (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 is an antiderivative of f , and F2 (x) =
x 3 + 2x 2 − 10 is also another antiderivative of f . In general, F (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 + k, where
d
k is an arbitrary constant, is an antiderivative of f as F (x) = 3x 2 + 4x + 0 = f (x).
dx
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 3 / 85
Antiderivatives....

Note
Let f be a function:
R
the set of all anti-derivatives of f is denoted by f (x)dx and read are the integral
of f of x with respect to x;
R
if F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x), then f (x)dx = F (x) + c, for any constant c;
R R
in f (x)dx the symbol is called the integral sign; the function f (x) is called
the integrand and x is called the variable of integration.

Theorem
Suppose F and G are antiderivatives of f and g respectively and k is a constant. Then
R R
1 kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx = kF (x) + c.
R R R
2 [f (x) + g (x)]dx = f (x)dx + g (x)dx = F (x) + G (x) + c.
R R R
3 [f (x) − g (x)]dx = f (x)dx − g (x)dx = F (x) − G (x) + c.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 4 / 85

Antiderivatives....
Antiderivatives of some basic functions:
R
F (x) = f (x)dx F (x)
R n x n+1
F (x) = x dx F (x) = + c for n 6= −1
R x n +1
F (x) = e dx F (x) = e x + c
R
F (x) = sin xdx F (x) = − cos x + c
R
F (x) = cos xdx F (x) = sin x + c
2
R
F (x) = sec xdx F (x) = tan x + c
R 1
F (x) = x dx F (x) = ln |x| + c
R
F (x) = sec x tan xdx F (x) = sec x + c
2
R
F (x) = csc xdx F (x) = − cot x + C
R
F (x) = csc x cot xdx F (x) = − csc x + C
F (x) = − coskkx + C
R
F (x) = sin kxdx
F (x) = sinkkx + C
R
F (x) = cos kxdx
R 1
F (x) = x 2 +1 dx F (x) = arctan x + c.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 5 / 85
Some Techniques of Integration

Theorem (Integration by Substitution)

If g 0 (x) is continuous for all x in an interval I and f is continuous at g (x),
then Z Z
f (g (x))g 0 (x)dx = f (u)du, where u = g (x).

Example
2x(x 2 − 5)6 dx.
R
Evaluate
du
Let u = x 2 − 5. Then, = 2x which implies that du = 2xdx. Thus
dx
Z Z
1
2x(x 2 − 5)6 dx = u 6 du = u 7 + c
7

and hence 2x(x 2 − 5)6 dx = 17 (x 2 − 5)7 + c

R

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 6 / 85

Some Techniques of Integration

Example
Evaluate (x + 3)5 dx
R
du
Let u = x + 3 then = 1 which implies that du = dx. Thus
dx
Z Z
1
(x + 3) dx = u 5 du = u 6 + c
5
6

and hence (x + 3)5 dx = 61 (x + 3)6 + c

R

Example
R x
1 √ dx
2
R 1+x
2 sin 4xdx

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 7 / 85

Some Techniques of Integration

Theorem (Integration by parts)

If f and g are differentiable functions, then
Z Z
f (x)g 0 (x)dx = f (x)g (x) − g (x)f 0 (x)dx

Example
Find xe x dx
R

= x and g 0 (x) = e x . Then f 0 (x) = 1 and g (x) = e x . Therefore, xe x dx =

R
Let f (x)
xe x − e x · 1dx = xe x − e x + c
R

In some cases we may have to apply integration by parts more than once to arrive at the
required result as in the following example

Example
Find e x cosRxdx Let f (x) = e x and Rg 0 (x) = cos xdx. Then f 0 (x) = e x dx and g (x) =
R

sin x. Thus, e x cos xdx = e x sin x − e x sin xdx + c

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 8 / 85

Reduction Formulas:

m−1
Z Z
m 1 m−1
1 sin xdx = − sin x cos x + sinm−2 xdx .
m m
m−1
Z Z
1
2 cosm xdx = cosm−1 x sin x + cosm−2 xdx .
m m
Z Z
m m−1
3 ln xdx = x(ln x − 1) ln x − (m − 1) (ln x − 1) lnm−2 xdx .

Example
Evaluate the following integrals
Z Z Z
a) sin3 xdx b) 4
cos xdx c) ln3 xdx

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 9 / 85

Reduction Formulas:..
Solution :
(a) sin3 xdx = − 13 sin2 x cos x + 23 sin3−2 xdx from the reduction for-
R R

mula. Therefore, we have

Z
1 2
sin3 xdx = − sin2 x cos x − cos x + c,
3 3
for arbitrary constant c. Z
1
(b) From the reduction formula we have, cos4 xdx = cos3 x sin x +
Z 4Z
3
cos xdx. Again applying the reduction formula on cos2 xdx we
2
4
can obtain:
Z Z
2 1 1 1 1
cos dx = cos x sin x + cos2−2 xdx = sin x cos x + x + c1 .
2 2 2 2
Therefore, combining the two we finally get:
Z
1 3 3
cos4 xdx = cos3 x sin x + sin x cos x + x + c,
4 8 8
3
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 10 / 85
 sinm x cosn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+
R
(a) Integrals of the form:

(i) When m (the power of sin) is an odd positive integer and n (the power of
cos) is any positive rational number.
Let m = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ N.
Z Z Z

k
k
sinm x cosn xdx = 1 − cos2 x cosn x sin xdx = − 1 − u2 u n du ,

as du = − sin xdx.

Example
Z
2
Evaluate the integral sin3 x cos 5 xdx.
Solution :
Z
2 5 7 5 17
sin3 x cos 5 xdx = − (cos x) 5 + (cos x) 5 + c.
7 17

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 11 / 85

 sinm x cosn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+ ...
R
(a) Integrals of the form:

(ii) When n (the power of cos) is an odd positive integer and m (the power of sin) is
any positive rational number:

sinm x cosn x = sinm x cos2k x cos x = sinm x(1 − sin2 x)k cos x.
u = sin x one can arrive at:
Z Z  k Z  k
sinm x cosn xdx = sinm x 1 − sin2 x cos xdx = u m 1 − u 2 du,

as du = cos xdx.

Example
7
Evaluate the integral sin 3 x cos5 xdx.
R

Solution : Before we apply the substitution u = sin x we need to reformulate the

integrand to appropriate expression.
Z
3 10 3 16 3 22
sin7/3 x cos5 xdx = sin 3 x − sin 3 x + sin 3 x + c.
10 8 22

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 12 / 85

 sinm x cosn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+ ...
R
(a) Integrals of the form:

(iii) When both m and n (the powers of sin and cos) are even positive integers:
In this case, reduce the integrals to the smallest power; that is, to the smallest of
m and n, so that either m or n or both become odd; or transform the integral by
applying the half-angle formula sin2 x = 1−cos 2x
2
, and cos2 x = 1+cos 2x
2
.

Example
Evaluate sin2 3x cos2 3xdx.
R

Solution : Before we apply any appropriate substitution we need to reformulate the

integrand.
Z Z  
2 2 1 1
Then sin 3x cos 3xdx = − cos 12x dx
8 8
Z
1 1
= x− cos 12xdx
8 8
1 1
= x− sin 12x + c.
8 96

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 13 / 85

 R
(b) Integrals of the form tanm x secn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+
(i) When m (power of tan) is odd and n (power of sec) is any positive rational number:
In this case, our plan is to convert the integral to the form
Z
f (sec x) sec x tan xdx,
d
(as dx sec x = sec x tan x. for some appropriate function f , so that we can apply the
substitution u = sec x. m is odd implies that m = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ N. Then, we
use the identity tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 to convert tanm x to the form (sec2 x − 1)k tan x.
Z Z  k Z  k du
tanm x secn xdx = sec2 x − 1 secn x tan xdx = u2 − 1 un
u
du
as u = sec x =⇒ du = sec x tan xdx ⇐⇒ tan xdx = u
.

Example
√
Z
Evaluate tan3 x sec x dx.
Solution :Let u = sec x. Then, du = sec x tan xdx =⇒ du
u
= tan xdx. Therefore,
√
Z
2 5 1
tan3 x sec x dx = sec 2 x − 2 sec 2 x + c
5

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 14 / 85

 R
(b) Integrals of the form tanm x secn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+ ...
(ii) When n (power of sec) is even and m (power of tan) is any positive rational number:
In this case, our plan is to convert the integral to the form
Z
d
f (tan x) sec2 xdx , (as tan x = sec2 x.)
dx

for some appropriate function f , so that we can apply the substitution u = tan x .
Here, since n is even positive integer, we assume that n ≥ 2 so that secn x =
secn−2 x sec2 x. Then we use the identity sec2 x = tan2 x + 1 to reduce the integrand
to the form containing only the function tan x, as:
Z Z  k Z  k
tanm x secn xdx = tanm x tan2 x + 1 sec2 xdx = u m u 2 + 1 du,

for some appropriate k ∈ N ∪ {0} as u = tan x =⇒ du = sec2 xdx.

Example
R√
Evaluate tan x sec4 xdx.
Solution : Now, let u = tan x. Then du = sec2 xdx. Therefore,
√
Z
2 2
tan x sec4 xdx = tan7/2 x + tan3/2 x + c.
7 3
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 15 / 85
 R
(b) Integrals of the form tanm x secn xdx; m, n ∈ Q+ ...
(ii) When m (power of tan) is even and n (power of sec) is odd positive integers.
In this case transform the integrand functions to powers of sec x only and apply
reduction formula.

Example
Z
Evaluate tan2 x sec3 xdx.
Solution : To apply reduction formula we need to transform the integral first,
Z Z
tan2 x sec3 xdx = sec2 x − 1 sec3 xdx

Z
sec5 x − sec3 x dx


=
Z Z
= sec5 xdx − sec3 xdx

Then we apply reduction formula for both integrals to get final solution.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 16 / 85

 R
(c) Integrals of the form sin ax cos bxdx;
R R
sin ax sin bxdx; and cos ax cos bxdx, where a and b
are any constant real numbers
. Since a and b are assumed to be distinct constants, the above integrals cannot be
solved directly. To simplify them we need the following trigonometric identities:

sin(a ± b)x = sin ax cos bx ± sin bx cos ax

and cos(a ± b)x = cos ax cos bx ∓ sin ax sin bx

Then, from these sum rules we can solve for each of the integrands as:
1
sin ax cos bx = 2
[sin(a + b)x + sin(a − b)x]
1
cos ax cos bx = 2
[cos(a + b)x + cos(a − b)x]
1
sin ax sin bx = 2
[cos(a − b)x − cos(a + b)x]

This will convert all the integrands to single trigonometric functions, and the integrals
can be solved easily.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 17 / 85

 R
(c) Integrals of the form sin ax cos bxdx;
R R
sin ax sin bxdx; and cos ax cos bxdx, where a and b
are any constant real numbers
.

Example
Z
Evaluate sin 3x cos 6xdx
Solution :
Z Z
1
sin 3x cos 6xdx = [sin(3 + 6)x + sin(3 − 6)x]dx
2
Z Z
1 1
= sin 9xdx − sin 3xdx
2 2
1 1
= − cos 9x + cos 3x + c.
18 6
Z
1
i.e., sin 3x cos 6xdx = [3 cos 3x − cos 9x] + c.
18

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 18 / 85

(d) Integrals using half-angle formulas :
The half angle formulas for sine and cosine functions are:
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = , and cos2 x = .
2 2
Many integrals can be converted to simpler form using half angle formulas given above.

Example
Z
Evaluate sin2 x dx
Solution : Since sin2 x = 1−cos
2
2x
= 12 (1 − cos 2x) from half-angle formula, we have
Z Z
1 1 1
sin2 x dx = (1 − cos 2x)dx = x − sin 2x + c.
2 2 4

Example
Z
Evaluate cos2 x dx
Solution : Since cos2 x = 1+cos
2
2x
= 21 (1 + cos 2x) from half-angle formula, we have
Z Z
1 1 1
cos2 x dx = (1 + cos 2x)dx = x + sin 2x + c.
2 2 4
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 19 / 85
(d) Integrals using half-angle formulas:...

Example
√
Z
Evaluate 1 − cos x dx
Solution : Since  sin2 (
1
2
x) = 1−cos
2
x
from half-angle formula, we have,
2 1
1 − cos x = 2 sin x . Thus,
2
Z
√ √ Z 1 √ 1
1 − cos x dx = 2 sin( x)dx = −2 2 cos( x) + c.
2 2

Example
√
Z
Find 1 + cos 2x dx
Solution : Here, since cos2 x = 1+cos
2
2x
from half-angle formula, we have
Z
√ √ Z √
1 + cos 2x dx = 2 cos xdx = 2 sin x + c.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 20 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution
The integrands contain expressions of the form
p p p
x 2 + a2 , a2 − x 2 and x 2 − a2 ,

for some a ∈ R \ {0}, and we will indicate their possible solution procedures,
respectively.
√
a) Antiderivatives of functions involving expression of the form x 2 + a2 , for some
non-zero real
constant a. In this case put x = a tan u , where u is an angle taken
from −π 2
, π2 . Then, this will lead to

dx = a sec2 udu and x 2 + a2 = a2 tan2 u + a2 = a2 sec2 u.

Substituting these values will simplify the integrals, since

p √
x 2 + a2 = a2 sec2 u = a sec u.

But with variable of integration is now changed to u instead of the original variable
x. However, the final solution should be written in terms of x, and therefore, we
need to apply right-angled triangle where one of the angle is taken to be u. We will
outline the solution procedure using the following examples.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 21 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...
Example
Z p
Evaluate x 2 + a2 dx with a > 0.
Solution : √Let x = a tan u, u ∈ −π , π2 . Then dx = a sec2 udu and x 2 + a2 =


2
a2 sec2 u ⇒ x 2 + a2 = a sec u (since sec u ≥ 0, ∀u ∈ −π , π2 ) Therefore,


2
Z p Z Z
x 2 + a2 dx = (a sec u)(a sec2 udu) = a3 sec3 udu
  x=a tan u
sec u tan u 1
= a2 + ln | tan u + sec u| + c1
2 2 x=a tan u

But from x = a tan u and the√right-angled triangle with one of the acute angles is u, we
x 2 +a2
have tan u = xa and sec u = a
.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 22 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example (... Continued)

In assigning length values for the sides of the triangle, we start with
opposite x
tan u = = .
adjacent a
√
This yields that the length of the hypotenuse to be x 2 + a2 . Therefore, we can find all
possible trigonometric ratios for the angle u in terms of x and a. Hence,
Z p  
sec u tan u 1
x 2 + a2 dx = a2 + ln | tan u + sec u| + c1
2 2 x=a tan u
 √ √ 
1 x x 2 + a2 1 x 2 + a2 x
= a2 + ln + + c1
2a a 2 a a
1 p 2 a2 p
= x x + a2 + ln x + x 2 + a2 + c,
2 2
a2
where c = c1 − 2
ln a is an arbitrary constant.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 23 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...
Example
Z
dx
Evaluate .
(x 2 + 25)2
Solution : Let x = 5 tan u, u ∈ −π , π2 . Then dx = 5 sec2 udu and x 2 + 25 =


2
25 sec2 u ⇒ (x 2 + 25)2 = 252 sec4 u. Therefore,

5 sec2 udu
Z Z Z
dx 1
= = cos2 udu
(x 2 + 25)2 252 sec4 u 125 x=5 tan u
Z
1 1 + cos 2u
= du
125 2
  x=5 tan u
1 1
= u + sin 2u + c
250 2 x=5 tan u

we have tan u = x5 ⇒ u = tan−1 (x/5) and 21 sin 2u = sin u cos u

But since x =5 tan u, 
= √ x2 √5
2
= x 25x
+25
(This relation is obtained from the right-triangle angle
x +25 x +25
and sides relations).
Z  
dx 1 5x
Therefore, = arctan(x/5) + +c
(x 2 + 25)2 250 x 2 + 25
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 24 / 85
Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example
Z
dx
Evaluate the integral √ .
x2 x2 + 9 √
Solution : If we set x = 3 tan u, we get x 2 = 9 tan2 u, x 2 + 9 = 3 sec u and dx =
3 sec2 udu. Therefore,
3 sec2 udu
Z Z Z
dx 1 sec udu
√ = 2
=
x2 x2 + 9 (9 tan u)(3 sec u) 9 tan2 u x=3 tan u
Z
1 1
= du
9 sin u x=3 tan u
1
= ln | csc u − cot u| + c
9 x=3 tan u
√
1 x2 + 9 3
= ln | − |+c
9 x x
√
1 x2 + 9 − 3
= ln | |+c
9 x

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 25 / 85

Example
Z  −3/2
Evaluate the integral 2x 2 + 4x + 10 dx.
Solution : 2x 2 + 4x + 10 = 2(x 2 + 2x + 1) − 2 + 10 = 2(x + 1)2 + 8 = 2 (x + 1)2 + 4 .
 

We
 can 2now apply
−3/2 the1 substitution: x + 1 = 2 tan u, which implies that
(x + 1) + 4 = 8 cos3 u, and dx = 2 sec2 udu. Therefore,
Z  −3/2 Z h i−3/2
2x 2 + 4x + 10 dx = 2−3/2 (x + 1)2 + 4 dx
 3 Z
1 1
= √ cos3 u · 2 sec2 udu
2 8 x+1=2 tan u
 3 Z
1 1
= √ cos udu
2 4 x+1=2 tan u
 3
1 1
= √ sin u + c
4 2 x+1=2 tan u
 3 !
1 1 x +1
= √ p + c.
4 2 (x + 1)2 + 4
x+1
(as sin u = √ from the right-triangle relation.)
(x+1)2 +4

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 26 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

√
b) Antiderivatives of functions involving expression of the form a2 − x 2 , for some real
constant a such that a > 0.
In this case, we put the substitution x = a sin u, where − π2 ≤ u ≤ π2 so that cos u
is always positive in this given interval. Then dx = a cos udu and
p p √
a2 − x 2 = a2 − a2 cos2 u = a cos2 u = a cos u.

Since xa = sin u in the substitution, the range of xa must be the interval [−1, 1].
Hence this substitution is valid if xa ≤ 1 or |x| ≤ a. We will outline the solution
procedure in the following two examples.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 27 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...
Example
Z p
Evaluate the integral x 4x − x 2 dx.
Solution : Here as well, we need √ to use completing the square method to change the
integrand to the form containing a2 − x 2 . Hence,
p p
4x − x 2 = 4 − (x − 2)2 ⇒ 4x − x 2 = 22 − (x − 2)2 .

Then,
√ we can apply the substitution: x − 2 = 2 sin u, which implies that
4x − x 2 = 2 cos u, and dx = 2 cos udu, with x = 2 + 2 sin u. Therefore,
Z p Z
x 4x − x 2 dx = [2 + 2 sin u] 2 cos u · 2 cos udu
Z Z
= 8 cos2 udu + 8 cos2 u sin udu
x−2=2 sin u x−2=2 sin u
   
1 8 3
= 4 u + sin 2u − cos u + c
2 3 x−2=2 sin u

8
= 4u + 2 sin 2u − cos3 u + c
3 x−2=2 sin u

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 28 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example (... continued)

√
4x−x 2 2 3/2
But x −2 = 2 sin u =⇒ sin u = x−2 and cos u = ⇒ cos3 u = (4x−x8 ) , Moreover,
√ 2 2
1 (x−2) 4x−x 2
2
sin u = sin u cos u = 4
. Substituting these values in the last integral we finally
arrive at,
Z p  
x −2 p 1
x 4x − x 2 dx = 4 arcsin + (x − 2) 4x − x 2 − (4x − x 2 )3/2 + c.
2 3

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 29 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...
Example
Z √
−x 2 − 2x + 3
Evaluate dx.
x +1
Solution : First, we write 3 − 2x − x 2√equivalently as 4 − (x + 1)2 . Then applying
the substitution x + 1 = 2 sin u, we get −x 2 − 2x + 3 = 2 cos u and dx = 2 cos udu.
Therefore,
Z √ 2
1 − sin2 u
Z Z
−x − 2x + 3 (2 cos u)(2 cos udu)
dx = =2 du
x +1 2 sin u sin u x+1=2 sin u
Z Z
= 2 csc udu − 2 sin udu
x+1=2 sin u

= 2 ln | csc u − cot u| + cos u + c

x+1=2 sin u
  p !
2 4 − (x + 1)2
= 2 ln −
x +1 x +1
p
4 − (x + 1)2
+ + c.
2
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 30 / 85
Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

√
c) Antiderivatives of functions involving expression of the form x 2 − a2 , for some real
constant a such that a > 0.
In this case, we set x = a sec u; 0 ≤ u < π2 or π ≤ u < 3π
2
. Then this yields,
p p p √
x 2 − a2 = a2 sec2 u − a2 = a2 (sec2 u − 1) = a2 tan2 u = a tan u.

Since the domain of substitution is [0, π2 ) ∪ [π, 3π

2
) and the range of substitution is
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞), this substitution is valid if |x| > a. We will outline the solution
procedure using the examples below.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 31 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example
Z √
x 2 − 25
Evaluate the integral dx.
x4 √
Solution : Applying the substitution x = 5 sec u, we get x 2 − 25 = 5 tan u and
dx = 5 sec u tan udu. Therefore,
Z √ 2 Z
x − 25 (5 tan u)(5 sec u tan udu)
dx =
x4 54 sec4 u
Z 2
tan u
= du
25 sec3 u x=5 sec u
Z
1 2
= sin u cos udu
25 x=5 sec u
 
1 1 3
= sin u + c
25 3 x=5 sec u

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 32 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example (... Continued)

√
x 2 −25
But x = 5 sec u ⇒ sec u = x5 or cos u = x5 and sin u = x
(from right-angled triangle
with acute angle u). Hence, with this substitution, the final value in the above integral
becomes,
Z √ 2 √ 2 3 2

3/2
x − 25 1 x − 25 1 x − 25
dx = + c = + c.
x4 3 × 25 x 75 x3

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 33 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example
Z
(x − 1)
Evaluate dx.
x 2 − 6x
Solution : First, we write x 2 − 6x equivalently as x 2 − 6x = (x − 3)2 − 9. Then applying
the substitution x − 3 = 3 sec u, we get x 2 − 6x = 9 sec2 u, x − 1 = 2 + 3 sec u and
dx = 3 sec u tan udu. Therefore,
Z Z
(x − 1) (2 + 3 sec u)(3 sec u tan udu)
dx =
x 2 − 6x 9 tan2 u
sec2 u
Z Z 
2 sec u
= du + du
3 tan u tan u x−3=3 sec u

sec2 u
 Z Z 
2
= csc udu + du
3 tan u x−3=3 sec u

 
2
= ln | csc u − cot u| + ln | tan u| + c
3 x−3=3 sec u

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 34 / 85

Integration by trigonometric substitution ...

Example
√
x−3 x 2 −6x
But x − 3 = 3 sec u ⇒ sec u = 3
, csc u = √x−3
2
, cot u = √ 3
, tan u = 3
.
x −6x x 2 −6x
This change of variables is used to finally get,
Z √
(x − 1) 2 x −6 x 2 − 6x
dx = ln √ + ln +c
x − 6x
2 3 x 2 − 6x 3
Z
(x − 1) 1 p
Or dx = ln (x − 6)2 ( x 2 − 6x ) + C1 ,
x 2 − 6x 3
where C1 = c − ln 3.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 35 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions

Remark
The following integrals are important in applying the method of integration by using
partial fractions.
Z
1
1 dx = ln |x + a| + c
x +a
Z
1 1
2 dx = (x + a)1−m + c, m 6= 1
(x + a)m 1−m
Z
2x
3 dx = ln(x 2 + a2 ) + c
x 2 + a2
Z
1 1 x 
4
2 2
dx = tan−1 +c
x +a a a

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 36 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions

Consider a rational function:

P(x)
R(x) = , where P and Q are polynomials.
Q(x)

If the degree of the numerator function P(x) is greater than or equal to that of the
degree of the denominator function Q(x) then the rational function R(x) is called an
improper rational function; and if degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator, the rational function R(x) is called a proper rational function. Any
improper rational function can be converted to a sum of a polynomial and a proper
rational function using long division; and R(x) can be expressed as:

B(x)
R(x) = A(x) + ,
Q(x)

where degree of B(x) is less than degree of Q(x). So, in the next discussion we will
mainly focus on the integral of proper rational functions.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 37 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Z
P(x)
The method of finding the integral dx depends on the factors of the
Q(x)
denominator function Q(x).
If a polynomial Q(x) can be written as a product of linear factors, i.e.,
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ),
where all the coefficients ai , bi ’s are real numbers, then Q(x) is said to be factored into
linear factors. If some of such factors are the same, say ai x + bi = aj x + bj for some i
and j, then the polynomial is said to have repeated linear factors. Quadratic functions,
such as x 2 + 4, which cannot be reduced into linear factors with only real coefficients are
called irreducible quadratic. Note that, irreducible quadratics have negative
discriminant.
Example

1 x 2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3) – distinct linear factors (positive discriminant)

2 x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 – repeated linear factors (zero discriminant)
3 x 2 + 2x + 2 (discriminant = 22 − 4 × 1 × 2 = −4 negative) – no linear factors
with real coefficients; i.e., x 2 + 2x + 2 is an irreducible quadratic.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 38 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Example
1 x 3 − x = x(x 2 − 1) = x(x − 1)(x + 1) – distinct linear factors.
3 2 2
2 x + 2x + x = x(x + 1) – repeated linear factors.
3 2
3 x + 8 = (x + 2)(x − 2x + 4) – linear and quadratic factors.
4 2 2 2
4 x + 4x + 4 = (x + 2) – repeated quadratic factors.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 39 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

The first step in finding the partial fraction decomposition of a proper rational function
P(x)/Q(x) is to factor the denominator Q(x) into linear and/or irreducible quadratic
factors, where the repeated factors are collected. Then the factors of Q(x) have the form

(ax + b)m and/or (ax 2 + bx + c)k

for some positive integers m and k.

The next step is to express the ratio P(x)/Q(x) as a sum of partial fractions of the form
A Ax + B
or .
(ax + b)i (ax 2 + bx + c)j
We explain the details for the four different cases that occur depending on the factors of
the denominator Q(x).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 40 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Case 1: The denominator is a product of distinct linear factors, none of which is

repeated.
i.e., Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ),
where no factor is repeated. In this case, the partial fraction decomposition contains the
sum of terms of the following form.

P(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ··· + ,
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 ak x + bk

where A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak are constants to be determined. Then each summand can be

integrated easily as can be seen in the coming examples.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 41 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Example
Find the following integrals.
x3 + 1 2x 2 + 5x − 1
Z Z Z
x + 11
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx.
−2x 2 + x + 3 x 3 − 4x x 3 + x 2 − 2x
Z
x + 11
Solution : (a) dx
−2x 2 + x + 3
First we get the factors of the denominator, as:
−2x 2 + x + 3 = −2x 2 − 2x + 3x + 3 = −2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1) = (−2x + 3)(x + 1) [distinct
linear factors].

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 42 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Therefore,
x + 11 x + 11 A B
= = + ,
−2x 2 + x + 3 (−2x + 3)(x + 1) −2x + 3 x +1
where A and B are constants to be determined by comparing the coefficients in the
numerators.
x + 11 A(x + 1) + B(−2x + 3)
=
(−2x + 3)(x + 1) (−2x + 3)(x + 1)
Multiplying both sides by the denominator (−2x + 3)(x + 1), we get
x + 11 = A(x + 1) + B(−2x + 3) = (A − 2B)x + (A + 3B)
Comparing coefficients we get A − 2B = 1 and A + 3B = 11, which solves to A = 5 and
B = 2. Therefore,
x + 11 5 2
= + ,
(−2x + 3)(x + 1) −2x + 3 x +1
and
Z Z Z
x + 11 5 2
dx = dx + dx
−2x + x + 3
2 −2x + 3 x +1
5
= − ln | − 2x + 3| + 2 ln |x + 1| + c
2
= ln |(x + 1)2 | − ln |(−2x + 3)5/2 | + c
(x + 1)2
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) =Mathln
1031 (Chapter 5) + c. March 21, 2024 43 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...
x3 + 1
Z
Solution : (b) dx
x 3 − 4x
Here, since the integrand is an improper rational function, we first use long division to
get:
x3 + 1 4x + 1
=1+ 3 .
x 3 − 4x x − 4x
Then, using similar procedure as in (a) above, the denominator of the second term (the
proper rational function) can be factored to x 3 − 4x = x(x − 2)(x + 2) [distinct linear
factors]. Which implies that,
4x + 1 A B C 1 9 7
= + + ⇒A=− , B= , C =− .
x 3 − 4x x x −2 x +2 4 8 8
Thus, the integral becomes

x3 + 1
Z Z Z
4x + 1
dx = 1dx +
x 3 − 4x x 3 − 4x
Z Z Z Z
−(1/4) (9/8) −(7/8)
= dx + dx + dx + dx
x x −2 x +2
1 9 7
= x − ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x + 2| + c.
4 8 8
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 44 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...

2x 2 + 5x − 1
Z
Solution : (c) dx
x 3 + x 2 − 2x
Since the integrand is a proper rational function, we first factor the denominator, to get:
x 3 + x 2 − 2x = x(x 2 + x − 2) = x(x − 1)(x + 2) [distinct linear factors] and using partial
fraction decomposition we get the integrand be,

2x 2 + 5x − 1 A B C
= + + ,
x 3 + x 2 − 2x x x −1 x +2
which yields, A = 12 , B = 2 and C = − 12 and the integration becomes,

2x 2 + 5x − 1
Z Z Z Z
(1/2) 2 −(1/2)
dx = dx + dx + dx
x + x − 2x
3 2 x x −1 x +2
1 1
= ln |x| + 2 ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 2| + c
2 2
√
x(x − 1)2
= ln √ + c.
x +2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 45 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Case 2: The denominator is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.

i.e., Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )r1 (a2 x + b2 )r2 · · · (am x + bm )rm · · · (ak x + bk )rk ,

where all the factors ai x + bi for i = 1, . . . , k are distinct. In this case, for each repeated
factor of the form (ax + b)r , the partial fraction decomposition contains the following
sum of r partial fractions:

B1 B2 Br
+ + ··· + ,
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)r

where B1 , B2 , . . . , Br are constants to be determined. After determining the numerator

constants from the fractional decomposition equation, we will use the sum rule as the
integral of each term is evaluated using the substitution method; i.e.,

(ax + b)1−j
Z Z
dx 1 dx
= ln |ax + b| + c and = + c, for j 6= 1.
ax + b a (ax + b)j (1 − j)a

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 46 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Example
Find the following integrals.
x 2 + 2x + 3 3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2
Z Z
(a) 2
dx (b) dx (c)
Z (x − 1)(x + 1) x4 + x3
2x 4 + 1
dx.
(x − 2)3

x 2 + 2x + 3
Z
Solution : (a) dx:
(x − 1)(x + 1)2
Here, since the integrand is a proper rational function and the denominator is
already given as a product of linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition
gives:

x 2 + 2x + 3 A B C
= + +
(x − 1)(x + 1)2 x − 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2
A(x + 1)2 + B(x − 1)(x + 1) + C (x − 1)
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)2
⇒ x 2 + 2x + 3 =
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) (AMath
+ B)x 2
+ (2A
1031 (Chapter 5) + C )x + (A − B − C21,) 2024
March 47 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Comparing the coefficients of the numerators we will get the three equations:
A + B = 1, 2A + C = 2, A − B − C = 3, with the three unknowns, A, B and C . Solving
the three equations yield, A = 32 , B = − 21 and C = −1. Therefore, the integral becomes

x 2 + 2x + 3
Z Z Z Z
(3/2) −(1/2) −1
dx = dx + dx + dx
(x − 1)(x + 1)2 x −1 x +1 (x + 1)2
3 1 1
= ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| + +c
2 2 x +1
(x − 1)3/2 1
= ln + + c.
(x + 1)1/2 x +1

3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2
Z
Solution : (b) dx:
x4 + x3

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 48 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Here as well, the integrand function is a proper rational function and factoring the
denominator gives, x 4 + x 3 = x 3 (x + 1). Since the factor x 3 = (x − 0)3 is repeated 3
times, we must have,
3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2 A B C D
= + 2 + 3 + .
x4 + x3 x x x x +1
Then, multiplying both sides by the least common multiple of the denominators,
x 3 (x + 1), and collecting like terms, we get:

3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2 = (A + D)x 3 + (A + B)x 2 + (B + C )x + C .

From this relation we get A = 2, B = 1, C = 2, and D = 1. Therefore, returning back

to the resulting integral, we have,

3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2
Z Z Z Z Z
2 1 2 1
dx = dx + dx + dx + dx
x4 + x3 x x2 x3 x +1
 
1 1 1
= 2 ln |x| − + 2 − + ln |x + 1| + c
x 2 x2
1 1
= ln x 2 (x + 1) − − 2 + c.
x x
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 49 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Example (... Continued)
2x 4 + 1
Z
Solution : (c) dx:
(x − 2)3
After long division of the numerator to the denominator, we will arrive at

2x 4 + 1 48x 2 − 128x + 97
= 2x + 12 + .
(x − 2)3 (x − 2)3

48x 2 − 128x + 97
Now, decomposing the resulting proper rational function using similar
(x − 2)3
approach as in the above examples, we get

2x 4 + 1 48 32 29
= 2x + 12 + + − .
(x − 2)3 x −2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)3
Therefore, the integral simplifies to,

2x 4 + 1
Z Z Z Z Z
48 32 29
dx = (2x + 12)dx + dx + dx − dx
(x − 2)3 x −2 (x − 22 (x − 2)3
32 29 1
= x 2 + 12x + 48 ln |x − 2| − + + c.
x −2 2 (x − 2)2
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 50 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Case 3: The denominator contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is

repeated.
i.e., Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )r1 · · · (ak x + bk )rk (c1 x 2 + d1 x + e1 ) · · · (cm x 2 + dm x + em ),

where all the quadratic factors are distinct and each of them is irreducible, i.e., each has
negative discriminant. In this case, corresponding to each quadratic factor,
P(x)
ci x 2 + di x + ei in the denominator, the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x) contains a
summand of the form:
Ci x + D i
, (1)
ci x 2 + di x + ei
where Ci ’s and Di ’s are constants to be determined.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 51 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Note that, in the fractional decomposition, the numerators contain linear terms in x
corresponding to each irreducible quadratic denominator. Then the term given in
equation (1) can be integrated by completing the square method on ci x 2 + di x + ei (if
necessary) and using the integral formula:
Z Z
dx 1 −1 x
  2x
dx = ln x 2 + a2 + c.


= tan +c or
x 2 + a2 a a x 2 + a2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 52 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Example
Solve the following integrals.

2x 3 − 3 3x 2 + 2x − 1
Z Z
(a) 2 2
dx (b) dx.
(x + 2x + 2)(x + 1) x3 − 1

2x 3 − 3
Z
Solution : (a) dx:
(x + 2x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
2

Since the discriminant of the factor x + 2x + 2 is 22 − 4 × 1 × 2 = 4 − 8 = −4 < 0, both

2

factors of the denominator are irreducible quadratic terms. Using the quadratic factor
rule we can decompose the integrand fraction as:
2x 3 − 3 C1 x + D1 C2 x + D2
= +
(x + 2x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
2 x 2 + 2x + 2 x2 + 1
(C1 x + D1 )(x 2 + 1) + (C2 x + D2 )(x 2 + 2x + 2)
=
(x 2 + 2x + 2)(x 2 + 1)

⇒ 2x 3 − 3 = (C1 + C2 )x 3 + (D1 + 2C2 + D2 )x 2 + (C1 + 2C2 + 2D2 )x + (D1 + 2D2 ).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 53 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

By comparing the coefficients of the two sides we can get the values of the constants to
be C1 = 65 , D1 = − 51 , C2 = 45 , and D2 = − 57 . Therefore, the fractional decomposition
becomes,
2x 3 − 3
 
1 6x − 1 4x − 7
= + .
(x 2 + 2x + 2)(x 2 + 1) 5 x 2 + 2x + 2 x2 + 1
To integrate each summand fraction, we need to write the summands as follows:
6x − 1 6(x + 1) − 7 6(x + 1) 7
= 2 = 2 − 2 ,
x 2 + 2x + 2 x + 2x + 2 x + 2x + 2 x + 2x + 2
4x − 7 4x 7
and = 2 − 2 .
x2 + 1 x +1 x +1

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 54 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Then, we can now apply necessary substitution for each integrand. That means,
Z Z Z
6(x + 1) 2(x + 1)dx du
2
dx = 3 2
= 3 = 3 ln(x 2 + 2x + 2) + c1 ;
x + 2x + 2 x + 2x + 2 u u=x 2 +2x+2
Z Z Z
7 dx du
dx = 7 = 7 = 7 tan−1 (x + 1) + c2 ;
x 2 + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1 u 2 + 1 u=x+1
Z Z Z
4x 2xdx du
dx = 2 = 2 = 2 ln(x 2 + 1) + c3 ;
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 u u=x 2 +1
Z Z
7 dx
dx = 7 = 7 tan−1 (x) + c4 .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 55 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Therefore, the integral becomes,

2x 3 − 3
Z Z  
1 6x − 1 4x − 7
dx = + dx
(x + 2x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
2 5 x 2 + 2x + 2 x2 + 1
1h
= 3 ln(x 2 + 2x + 2) + c1 − 7 tan−1 (x + 1) + c2
5 i
+2 ln(x 2 + 1) + c3 − 7 tan−1 (x) + c4
1  2 
= ln (x + 2x + 2)3 (x 2 + 1)2
5
7  −1 
− tan (x + 1) + tan−1 (x) + c,
5
where c = 15 (c1 − c2 + c3 − c4 ) is an arbitrary constant.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 56 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

3x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
Solution : (b) dx:
x3 − 1
Since the denominator can be factored as x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) and the
discriminant of the quadratic factor x 2 + x + 1 is 12 − 4 × 1 × 1 = 1 − 4 = −3 < 0, this
factor is an irreducible quadratic term. Thus

3x 2 + 2x − 1 3x 2 + 2x − 1 A Bx + C
= = + 2 .
x −1
3 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) x −1 x +x +1
equating the numerators, we get

3x 2 + 2x − 1 = A(x 2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C )(x − 1) = (A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C )x + (A − C ).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 57 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

This results in A = 4/3, B = 5/3 and C = 7/3. Hence the integral becomes,

3x 2 + 2x − 1
Z Z Z
4/3 1 5x + 7
dx = dx + dx
x −1
3 x −1 3 x2 + x + 1
Z "5 #
(2x + 1) + 92
Z
4 dx 1 2
= + dx
3 x −1 3 x2 + x + 1
" Z Z #
4 1 5 (2x + 1)dx 9 dx
= ln |x − 1| + +
3 3 2 x2 + x + 1 2 (x + 21 )2 + 34
!
4 5 3 2 2
= ln |x − 1| + ln(x 2 + x + 1) + · √ tan−1 √ +
3 6 2 3 3(x + 12 )
!
4 5 √ 2
= ln |x − 1| + ln(x 2 + x + 1) + 3 tan−1 √ + c.
3 6 3(x + 12 )

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 58 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...

Case 4: The denominator contains irreducible quadratic factors, some of these

quadratic factors are repeated.

i.e., Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )r1 · · · (ak x + bk )rk (c1 x 2 + d1 x + e1 ) · · · (cm x 2 + dm x + em ),

where the quadratics have negative discriminants and some of these terms repeat. In
this case, corresponding to each quadratic factor of the form (ci x 2 + di x + ei )r in the
P(x)
denominator, the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x) contains a summand of the form:

Ci1 x + Di1 Cir x + Dir

2
+ ··· + ,
ci x + di x + ei (ci x 2 + di x + ei )r

where each of Cij and Dij , j = 1, . . . , r are constants to be determined. This is similar to
the case for the repeating linear factors.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 59 / 85

Integration by using Partial Fractions...
Example
Find the following integrals.
Z 3
x − 3x 2 + 2x − 3
Z 4
x − x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 2
(a) 4 2
dx (b) dx.
x + 2x + 1 (x − 1)(x 2 + 2)2
Z 3
x − 3x 2 + 2x − 3
Solution : (a) dx:
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
Since the denominator can be factored to x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 = (x 2 + 1)2 , where x 2 + 1 is
a repeated irreducible quadratic term. Using the repeated quadratic factor rule we can
decompose the integrand fraction as:

x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 3 Ax + B Cx + D (Ax + B)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)

4 2
= 2 + 2 2
= .
x + 2x + 1 x +1 (x + 1) (x 2 + 1)2
Comparing the coefficients of the numerators we get the following relations:

Coefficients of x 3 ;

 A = 1,
Coefficients of x 2 ;

B = −3,


 A + C = 2, Coefficients of x;
B + D = −3, Constatnt terms.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 60 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...
This implies that, A = 1, B = −3, C = 1 and D = 0. Therefore,
Z 3
x − 3x 2 + 2x − 3
Z Z
x −3
dx = dx + x(x 2 + 1)2 dx
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 x2 + 1
Z Z Z
x dx
= dx − + x(x 2 + 1)2 dx
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
1 1
= ln(x 2 + 1) − 3 tan−1 x − + c.
2 2(x 2 + 1)
Z 4
x − x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 2
Solution : (b) dx.:
(x − 1)(x 2 + 2)2
Here, the denominator is a product of a linear term and a repeating irreducible quadratic
term. Therefore, the integrand fraction can be decomposed to:
x 4 − x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 2 A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
(x − 1)(x 2 + 2)2 x −1 x +2 (x + 2)2
Comparing the coefficients of like terms, after simplification, we get the following
relations:
Coefficients of x 4 ;

 A + B = 1,
of x 3 ;



 C − B = −1, Coefficients
4A + 2B − C + D = 2, Coefficients of x 2 ;
2C − 2B + E − D = −1, Coefficients of x;





4A − 2C − E Math
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) = 2,1031 (ChapterConstatnt
5) terms, March 21, 2024 61 / 85
Integration by using Partial Fractions...

yielding the values, A = 1/3, B = 2/3, C = −(1/3), D = −1 and E = 0. Therefore,

Z 4
x − x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 2
Z Z Z
(1/3) 1 2x − 1 −x
dx = dx + dx + dx
(x − 1)(x 2 + 2)2 x −1 3 x2 + 2 (x 2 + 2)2
Z Z Z Z
1 dx 1 2xdx 1 dx xdx
= + − −
3 x −1 3 x2 + 2 3 x2 + 2 (x 2 + 2)2
 
1 1 1 x
= ln |x − 1| + ln(x 2 + 2) − √ tan−1 √
3 3 3 2 2
1
+ + c.
2(x 2 + 2)

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 62 / 85

The Definite Integral
Definition
A partitionP of a closed interval [a, b] is a finite set of points P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xN }
such that a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xN = b.
If P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xN } is a partition on [a, b], then [x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . ., [xN1 , xN ] are
called segments (or sub-intervals) of P. (i.e., P partitions the interval [a, b] into N
subintervals or segments.)
A partition P of [a, b] is called a regular partition if every segment has the same
length. i.e., ∆x = ∆xi = xi − xi−1 = b−a N
, ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , N.

Definition
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function and P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xN } be a regular partition
of [a, b]. Let xi∗ ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] and ∆x = b−a
N
. Then, if
N
X N
X
lim f (xi∗ )∆x = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
∆x→0 N→∞
i=1 i=1

exists, then it is called is called the definite

R b integral of f from the point a to b and it is
denoted by: lim∆x→0 Ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x = a f (x)dx.
P
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD)
PN ∗(EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 63 / 85
Definite Integrals...

Remark
1 In the definition of the definite integrals, if a = b (where a, b ∈domf ) then ∆x = 0
in the Riemann sum and therefore,
Z a
f (x)dx = 0.
a
R
2 The symbol was introduced by Leibnitz and is called an integral sign. It is an
elongated S and this symbol was chosen because an integral is the limit of sums.
Z b
3 In the notation f (x)dx, f (x) is called the integrand and a and b are called limits
a
of integration (with a the lower limit and b the upper limit).
Z b
4 The definite integral f (x)dx is a number; it does not depend on the variable
a
x. In fact you can use any variable in place of x without changing the value of the
integral.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 64 / 85

Properties of Definite Integrals
Proposition
Suppose that the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b] and if α is a constant real
number. Then αf , f ± g are integrable on [a, b] and each of the following holds.
Z b Z b
(i) αf (x)dx = α f (x)dx [Constant Multiple Rule.]
a a
Z b

Z b Z b
(ii) f (x) + g (x) dx = f (x)dx + g (x)dx [Sum Rule.]
a a a
Z b

Z b Z b
(iii) f (x) − g (x) dx = f (x)dx − g (x)dx [Difference Rule.]
a a a
Z b Z a
(iv) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b

If f1 , f2 , . . . , fm are continuous funtions on the interval [a, b] and the constants α1 , α2 ,

Xm
. . . , αm are real numbers, then the sum αk fk (x) is integrable on [a, b] and
k=1
" m
# m
Z b X X Z b
αk fk (x) dx = αk fk (x)dx.
a k=1 k=1 a
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 65 / 85
Properties of Definite Integrals

Theorem
Suppose that f is a real valued function which is integrable on a closed interval containing
the points a, b and c. Then,
Z b Z c Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
a a c

and this formula is independent of the order of the three points a, b and c.

This is called the additive property of definite integrals.

The conclusion of the above theorem holds also if the number of points are more than
three but are finite in number. That means, if f is an integrable function on the interval
containing the points a1 , a2 , . . . , an , then
Z an Z a2 Z a3 Z an
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx + · · · + f (x)dx (2)
a1 a1 a2 an−1

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 66 / 85

Properties of Definite Integrals...

Theorem (Comparison Properties of Integrals)

If f is an integrable function on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx ≥ 0. (3)
a

If f and g are integrable functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≤ g (x) for all x ∈ [a, b],
then Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≤ g (x)dx. (4)
a a
If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all a ≤ x ≤ b, then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a). (5)
a

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 67 / 85

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Theorem (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC-1))
Let f be continuous on [a, b] and define the function F on [a, b] by
Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt for a ≤ x ≤ b.
a

Then, F is differentiable on [a, b] with F 0 (x) = f (x) for x ∈ [a, b].

Example
Evaluate the derivative of each of the following.
Z x
t 2 + 2t + 1 dt


(a) F (x) =
0
Z x 3 +x
(b) G (x) = ln(2t − 1)dt.
1
Z sin(x 2 +1)
2t 2 + 1 dt.


(c) H(x) = √
x

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 68 / 85

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus...

Example (... Continued)

Z x
t 2 + 2t + 1 dt: By the First Fundamental Theorem of


Solution : (a) F (x) =
0
Calculus, for f (t) = t 2 + 2t + 1, we have that

F 0 (x) = f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 1.
Z x 3 +x
Solution : (b) G (x) = ln(2t − 1)dt: Here since one of the limits of integration
1
3 3
(x + x) is a function
R u by itself, let us use a substitution u = x + x. Then the integral
becomes G (u) = 1 ln(2t − 1)dt. Then by chain rule the derivative of G with respect to
x is G 0 (x) = f (u) · u 0 (x) = ln(2u − 1) · (3x 2 + 1). Therefore,

G 0 (x) = f (u) · u 0 (x) = (3x 2 + 1) ln(2x 3 + 2x − 1).

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 69 / 85

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus...
Example (... Continued)
Z sin(x 2 +1)
2t 2 + 1 dt: In this integral both the limits of


Solution : (c) H(x) = √
x
integration are functions of x. Hence we can use the additive property of definite integrals
to write:
Z sin(x 2 +1) Z 1 Z sin(x 2 +1)
2t 2 + 1 dt = 2
2t 2 + 1 dt




H(x) = √ √
2t + 1 dt +
x x 1
√
Z x Z sin(x 2 +1)
2t 2 + 1 dt + 2t 2 + 1 dt



= −
1 1
√
Z sin(x 2 +1) Z x
2t 2 + 1 dt − 2t 2 + 1 dt



=
1 1

Then, with f (t) = 2t 2 + 1, by the sum and chain rules for derivatives we get
√ 1
H 0 (x) = f (sin(x 2 + 1)) · cos(x 2 + 1) · 2x − f ( x) · √
2 x
√
   
1
= 2 sin2 (x 2 + 1) + 1 2x cos(x 2 + 1) − 2( x)2 + 1 · √
2 x
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU)
 Math 1031
 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 70 / 85
The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Theorem (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC-2))
If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if F is any antiderivative of f on
[a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

Proof.
If f is integrable on [a, b] and x ∈ [a, b], then let
Z x
G (x) = f (t)dt.
a

If F is any other antiderivative of f , then there exists a constant C such that F (x) =
G (x) + C for any x ∈ [a, b]. Therefore,

F (b) − F (a) = [G (b) + C ] − [G (a) + C ]

Z b Z a Z b Z b
= G (b) − G (a) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt = f (t)dt − 0 = f (t)dt.
a a a a

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 71 / 85

The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus...

In the above theorem the difference F (b) − F (a) is usually denoted by [F (x)]ba . Using
this notation the definite integral can be written as
Z b  b Z b b
f (x)dx = F (x) or sometimes as f (x)dx = F (x) .
a a a a

Example
Z 3
Evaluate (x + 1)dx
0
1 2
Solution : The function F (x) = x + x is an antiderivative of the integrand
2
f (x) = x + 1. Then, by the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC-2),
Z 3  3  3    
1 2 1 2 1 2 15
(x + 1)dx = F (x) = x +x = ×3 +3 − ×0 +0 = .
0 0 2 0 2 2 2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 72 / 85

Application on Definite Integrals

I. Let f be a continuous function defined on [a, b] and assume that f (x) ≥ 0 for all
x ∈ [a, b]. Then the graph of f is above the x-axis between x = a and x = b. Then
the area A(R) of the region R below the graph of f between a and b is given by
Z b
A(R) = f (x)dx
a

Example
√
Find the area of the region below the graph of f (x) = 3 x between x = 1 and
x = 8. Z 8 Z 8 8
1/3 3 4/3 45
A(R) = f (x)dx = x dx = x = .
1 1 4 1 4

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 73 / 85

Application on Definite Integrals...
II. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions defined on the interval [a, b] such
that g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. Then the area of the region R bounded by the
graphs of g and f and the lines x = a and x = b is given by
Z b 
A(R) = f (x) − g (x) dx.
a

Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of
a) y = x − 2 and y = 2x − x 2 , between x = 0 and x = 2
b) y = x − 2 and y = 2x − x 2 .
Solution : a) If we set f (x) = 2x − x 2 and g (x) = x − 2, then f (x) ≥ g (x)∀x ∈ [0, 2].
Z 2  Z 2
A(R) = f (x) − g (x) dx = (2x − x 2 − x + 2)dx
0 0
Z 2   2
2 1 2 1 3
= (x − x + 2)dx = x − x + 2x
0 2 3 0
1 1 10
= ×4− ×8+4= square units.
2 3 3
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 74 / 85
Application on Definite Integrals...

Example (... continued)

Solution : b) In this case since the limits of integration are not given explicitly, we need to
find the intersection points of the two graphs so that we can get a closed region bounded
by the two graphs. Solving the two equations simultaneously we can get 2x − x 2 = y =
x − 2 ⇒ x 2 − x − 2 = 0, and this implies that x = 2, y = 0 and x = −1, y = −3.
Therefore,
Z 2 Z 2
A(R) = (2x − x 2 − x + 2)dx = (x − x 2 + 2)dx
−1 −1
  2
1 2 1 3
= x − x + 2x
2 3 −1
 
10 −7 9
= − = square units.
3 6 2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 75 / 85

Length of plane curves
Suppose a curve is described by the function y = f (x), where f is a continuous function
on the interval [a, b]. How can we find the length of this curve between the two points
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))? If we partition the interval [a, b] in some finite number of
points, say a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xN = b, and approximate the curve in each of the
intervals [xk , xk+1 ] by a straight line, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure : Approximating Length of a curve.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 76 / 85

Length of plane curves...
Definition
Let f be a differentiable function on the interval (a, b) such that the derivative f 0 (x) is
continuous on (a, b). Then the length of the curve y = f (x) defined on [a, b] (that is,
the length ` of the arc between the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))) is given by
s 2
Z b Z b 
p
0 (x)]2 dx
dy
`= 1 + [f = 1+ dx .
a a dx

Example
√
1 5
Find the length of the arc of the curve y = 2 x 3 between x = 3 and x = 3 .
√ 
1 5
Solution : Let f (x) = 2 x 3 , defined on the interval , . Then f 0 (x) = 3x 1/2 ,
  3
3
1 5
and this function is continuous on the interval , . Hence, the length of the
3 3
arc is Z 5/3 p Z 5/3
√ 212
`= 1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx = 1 + 9x dx = .
1/3 1/3 27
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 77 / 85
Improper Integrals
Definite integral of a function f is well defined if the integrand f is bounded on the
closed interval [a, b].
If the value of the function is unbounded in the interval [a, b] or if the limit of
integration is unbounded, the definite integral is not well defined.
Integrals with infinite limits of integration and integrals of functions that become
unbounded at a point within the interval of integration are called improper integrals.

Example
The following are examples of improper integrals.
Z ∞
1
1 dx
1 x
Z 2
1
2 √ dx
0 x
Z 4
dx
3
2/3
0 (x − 2)

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 78 / 85

Improper Integrals...
To determine such integrals we use the following rules.
1 If the function f is continuous on the interval [a, ∞), then
Z ∞ Z t
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx .
a t→∞ a

Z b Z b
2 If f is continuous on (−∞, b], then f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx .
−∞ s→−∞ s

3 If f is continuous on the half open interval (a, b], and either lim f (x) = +∞ or
x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞, then
x→a+

Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx .
a y →a+ y

4 If f is continuous on the half open interval [a, b), and either lim f (x) = +∞ or
x→b −
Z b Z z
lim f (x) = −∞, then f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx .
x→b − a z→b − a

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 79 / 85

Improper Integrals...

If each of the above limits exist and are finite, then the corresponding improper
integral is said to be convergent and the value of the limit is assigned to the
integral.
If the limit does not exist or is ±∞ (infinity), then the corresponding improper
integral is said to diverge.
In the case when an improper integral diverges, no value is assigned to it.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 80 / 85

Improper Integrals...

Example
Evaluate the following integrals, if they exist.
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 ln x
a) 2
dx b) dx
1 x 1 x2
Z ∞ Z 1
1
c) dx d) e x dx.
1 x −∞
Z ∞
1 1
Solution : a) 2
dx: Since the integrand function 2 is continuous for all x ≥ 1,
1 x x
we have
Z ∞ Z t  t
1 1 1
dx = lim dx = lim −
1 x2 t→∞ 1 x 2 t→∞ x 1
 
1
= lim 1 − = 1.
t→∞ t
Z ∞
1
Hence, the improper integral converges and dx = 1.
1 x2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 81 / 85

Improper Integrals...

Example (... continued)

Z ∞
ln x ln x
Solution : b) 2
dx: The integrand function 2 is continuous for all x ≥ 1.
1 x x
Therefore, we canZ compute the improper integral using similar approach.
ln x 1
[Note here that dx = − (ln x + 1)]
x2 x
Z ∞ Z t  t  
ln x ln x 1 1
dx = lim dx = lim − (ln x + 1) = lim 1 − (ln t + 1)) = 1.
1 x2 t→∞ 1 x2 t→∞ x 1
t→∞ t
Z ∞
ln x
Hence, the improper integral converges and dx = 1 as well.
1 x2

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 82 / 85

Improper Integrals...

Example (... continued)

Z ∞
1 1
Solution : c) dx: Once again the integrand function is continuous for all
1 x x
x ≥ 1. Then,
Z ∞ Z t  t
1 1
dx = lim dx = lim ln x = lim ln t = ∞.
1 x t→∞ 1 x t→∞
1
t→∞

∞ Z
1
Therefore, the improper integral dx diverges.
1 x
Z 1
Solution : d) e x dx: The integrand function in this improper integral is also
−∞
continuous for all x ∈ R. Hence we can use the definition to get,
Z 1 Z 1  1
e x dx = lim e x dx = lim e x = lim (e − e s ) = e.
−∞ s→−∞ s s→−∞ s→−∞
s
Z 1
Hence, the improper integral converges and e x dx = e.
−∞

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 83 / 85

Improper Integrals...

Z ∞
dx
Example (The Integral )
1 xp
Z ∞
dx
The convergence of the improper integral depends on the value of p. In the
xp 1
above example we have seen that the integral converges for p = 2. However, for any real
number p the integral may not converge as can be seen below.
Z ∞ Z b ( h 1−p i
dx dx limb→∞ b1−p − 1−p 1
, if p 6= 1;
p
= lim p
=
1 x b→∞ 1 x limb→∞ [ln b − 0] , if p = 1.

Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 84 / 85

Improper Integrals...
Example (... continued)
Then we consider three different cases: the cases when p > 1, p = 1, and p < 1.
For p > 1, 1 − p < 0 and lim b 1−p = 0. Hence, for p > 1
b→∞
Z ∞
dx 1  1−p  1
p
= lim b −1 =− .
1 x b→∞ 1 − p 1−p
1
That is, the improper integral converges to .
p−1
R ∞ dx
For p = 1, 1 x p = limb→∞ (ln b − 0) = ∞. That is, the improper integral diverges
for p = 1.
For p < 1, 1 − p > 0 and b 1−p increases without bound as b increases. Hence, for
p < 1, Z ∞
dx 1  1−p 
p
= lim b − 1 = ∞.
1 x b→∞ 1 − p

That is, the improper integral diverges.

Z ∞
dx
In general, we can conclude that, the integral converges for p > 1 and
1 xp
diverges otherwise.
Tilahun Abebaw(PhD) (EAU) Math 1031 (Chapter 5) March 21, 2024 85 / 85