Family of Indo-Europian Languages: (8)

 It is called as Indo Aryn or Indo Germanic

 It was spoken during 3500 BC to 3000BC

Eastern Group : (4)

 It is called “Satem Group”

Armenian
Albanian
Indo-Iranion
Balto-Slavic

Western Group4)

 It is called “Centum Group”

Greek
Latin
Celtic
Primitive Germanic or Primitive Teutonic

Armenian:

 The language is found in south of the Caucasus Mountains and the eastern end of
the Black sea.
 It has Persian influence

Albanian:

 It was spoken in north west on Greece and east coast of the Adriatic sea.

Indo-Iranian:

 Sanskrit was spoken during 1500 BC.

 Panini who is the great grammarian of 4th century gave a fixed literary form for
Sanskrit.
 Pali is the language of Buddhists
 A dialect of Hindi with a good mixture of Persian and Arabic is known as
Hindustani
 Iranian was spoken in the north-western India.
Balto-Slavic:

 It has its origin in Eastern parts of Europe

Greek or Hellonic:

 It was spoken in Greece, Aegean and the coast of Asia Minor.

 Homer’s Iliod and Odyssey were existed in 8th century B.C.
 The important dialect is Attic (Athens)

Latin or Italic:

 It is the language of Italy

 It includes
Dante’s Divine comedy
Virgil’s Aeneid
Petrarch, Boccacio, Cicoro (Roman Orator)
 It is called as Romanic Language

Cettic:

 The language of the Cetts in Gaul is called as Gaelic.

Primitive Gemanic:

 It is called as Primitive Teutonic. (Toutons)

 It has three divisions
East Teutonic
W
NE

North Teutonic
West Teutonic
 It was spoken in centraland Northern Europe from 2000 to 1000 BC

East Teutonic:

 The principal languages is Gothic

 The earliest work was the Bible Translation by Bishop Ulfilas in 4th Century

North Teutonic:

 It was found in Scandinavia and Denmark

 Scandinavian is called as old Norse.

West Teutonic:

 It is divided into two catagories.

1. Low German
 2. High German

 Luther’s translation of the Bible was first printed in High German

 The Low German Languages are Old Saxon, Old Low Franconian, Old Frisian,
Old English.

Anglo-Saxon (or) Old English: (450-1100 A.D)

 The original inhabitants of England is Celts

 Runic xcripts was used
 The dialect of Anglo –Saxon is South West.
 King Alfred called the general language of England is English
 He used Wesses Dialect,(West Saxon dialect)
 North Germanic tribes Anglos, Saxons, Jutes settled in England (5th Century)
 Long vowels were used
(e.g) OE - ME
Stain - Stone
 It is the period of full inflextions
 Pronunciation has no silent syllable.
 First Historian is Venesable Bede
His work is “Ecclesiastical History of English People”
 Important work is Beowulf (epic)
 Changes in old English
Gradation:
It is called as Ablaut
Vowels undergo a change
Shifting of an accent and a change in the root syllable

Mutation:

It is called as umlaut

Umlaut means “alteration of sound” in German.

The change affected certain accented vowels and

dipthongs, when they were followed by an /i/, /j/. ex mysiz
–mice

 The important change is Great consonant shift. (Grimm’s Law)

Middle English: (1066-1500)

  Narman Grench mixed with Anglo-saxon is called as middle English after the
Norman conquest by William of Normandy.(1066)
 The important change is great vowel shift
 This is period of lovelled inflexions
 Many French and Latin words were added to English
 The important dialect is East Midland Dialect in 14th Century (1352)
 Londan became centre of all activities
 Oxford and Cambridge universities were started in 1215
 The Great vowelshift was largely responsible for bringing the pronunciation
closes to what we hear now. Long vowels were changed; short vowels remain
unchanged.

Modern English: (1500-Present)

 Renaissance:
o English is enriched by Greet and Latin
 Reformation:
o Translation of the Bible
 This is period of loss of inflexions
 The direct ancestor of modern literary English is the Mercian Dialect.
 The Teutonic Accent was largely responsible for the weakening and loss of
inflections.
 Grimm’s Law is the Consonant sound change in Germanic Languages and Indo-
European languages.

Grimms Law: (change of consonant sound)

 The sound changes in Germanic languages is known as “The First Sound

Shifting”
 It was originally discovered by Danish Scholar Rask.
 It was formulated as a Law by German Scholar, Jacob Grimm is known as “Great
Sonsinant Shift”
 Grimm noticed that a number of Latin words were placed alongside Germanic
words
Latin - Germanic
P, b,bh - f, p, b
T,d,dh - g,t,d
K,g,gh - h,k,g
 (e.x) Pater - Father

Mater - Mother

Ped - Foot

 Grimm used the term strong werbs and weak verbs.

Strong werbs indicate their tense by change of vowel
(ex) drive, drove, driven
Weak verbs denote actions derived from other words.
(ex) Love, Loved Loved
Its actions derived from noun “ love”.
 It is called ass
- Great Consonant shift
- Germanic consonant shift
- First consonant shift
- First Germanic sound shift
- Rask’s rule
 Grimm used first the terms “Ablaut”

Venner’s Law: (Voiceless fricatives became voiced)

 Danish Linguist. (Karl Verner found some exceptions in Grimm’s Law in 1875
 He explained the exception by the principle of accent.
 The stress fell on middle and final syllable in early Germanic.
 The stress fell on the first syllable in later Germanic.
 According to Grimm’s Law
Latin - Germanic
T - th
It is not agreed with centum-hundred
 The past tense form of many strong verbs is explainedusing “Verner’s Law”
 Verner’s Law predicts the English accent in words

Great Vowel Shift: (long vowels changed)

 The great vowel shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English
language
 It took place in England between 1350 to 1700
 Middle English Long Vowels changed their pronunciation
 It is responsible for manu of the peculiarities of English spelling.
 The term was wined by Otto Jespesson (1860-1943) a Danish Linguist and
Anglicist.
 The great vowel shift is related to the simplification of English Spelling
 Grimm’s Law (Jawb Grimm)

Grimm is a German Scholar of 19th Century. He analysed the change of consonant

shift

Grimm’s Law is the study of consonant shift

Latin German English Changes in Consonant Shift

|p| |f| Pater Vater Father The very first sound plosive became Fricative
|t| |r| Tress Thri Three Very first |t| sound became |r| sound
|k| |h| cor Heorte Heart The very first |k| is changed into |h| (glottal)
|s| |t|
Decan Tien Ten Voiced became voiceless
Voiced-Voiceless

 Verner’s Law is that voiceless fricatives in Germanic predicted by Grimm’s Law ,

became voiced, if the proceeding syllable was unstressed.

Verner’s Law

He also analysed consonant shift

Verner analysed somewhat deeply the Grimm

Verner’s Law is the study of change of consonant shift

Centum hundred
|k| |h|
|k| sound become |h| (glottal)
Satis sad
|t| |d|
Voiceless becomes voiced

|s|, |s|, |j) |2| |3| |0|

Voiceless Voiced

According to Verner, voiceless sound became voiced sound

Altus old
|t| |d|
Foreign Influences
Greek:
  Greek words came to England during Ronaissance period
 They were scientific and invention words
 Greek words came to England through Latin and French.

Science Literature Others

Biology Bible Theory
Nurology Theatre Antithesis
Psychology Drama Autograph
Geography Tragedy Chorus
Geology Crisis academy
Chronology Climax
Astrology Calostrope
Anthology Character]
Oxygen Tyrant
Hydrogen Irony
Atmosphere Elogy
Barometer Pathetic
Thermometer Epic]
Phonography Pandemonium]
Telephone Scheme
Telegram System
Bicycle Dilemma
Automobile Chaos
Atom Ecstasy
Chemist Nymph
Surgeon Magic
Microscope Harmony
Bulb Alphapet
Asylum hyphen
museum

Latin
 Roman invaded Britan in 55 B.C
 Christianity was introduced England in 597 AD by st. Augustic
 The great influence of Latin words in English is during 1550-1600.
 Manu latin words came to England during Renaissance.
 First grammar book of English was written in Latin
Christianity Science, Education
Church Locomotor
Bishop Motor
Pope tractor
Priest Chemist
Clergymen School
Saint Master
Angel Verse
Hymn Grammatic
Candle
Cross
Ending Others

Lancaster prima facie

Manchester ipso facts
Senior vice versa
Miser trinity
Medium, dictum omnibus
Genius]
Specimum
Gratis
Motor
Critic
Educate
abysmal

French:
 French words came to English during Norman conguest (10bb)

Ecclesiastical Literature Navy

Religion Poet Captain
Divine Prase Soldier
Pity Paper Army
Sacrifice Grammer Enemy
Medical Taste Adjective
Medicine Supper, Menu Poor
Stomech Beaf, mutton Simple
Surgery Vension, grape Innocent
Pain Lemon, spice Honest
Ointment Frank
 Fashion Verbs French Phrases`
Dress summon at large
Luxury refuse by heart
Jewel purify to take leave of
Ornament prove to come to a head
frock move to make believe
petticoat
Art Government
Art Empire
Music Reign
Painting Majesty
Beauty Revenue
office

4. German:

 Cobalt
 Nickel
 Zinc
 Zeitgeist
 Leitmotif
 Howitzer
 Minenwerfer
 Zeppelin
 Sucksack
 Mangel-warzel
 Seminar
 Kindergarden
 Bismarkian
 Diplomacy
 Prusstanism
 nazism

5. Sandinavian:

 Scandinavian had an influence on old English

 Scandinavia invaded England in 787 A.D
 Viking Settlers contributed to English
1. Place Names – (e.g) Linthorpe, Brimtoft
2. Sound of “St”- (e.g) Skirt
3. Sound of “k.g”-(e.g) got, kid
4. 3rd person singular – (e.g.) tells
5. Grammer:
 - Pronound, propositions, adverbs
- Parts of verb, use of “shall, will”
6. Name ending “inson” – (e.g) Johnson
7. Husband, knife, fellow

Spanish Italian Celtic

1. Mosquito 1. Pianoforte 1. Bin
2. Sherry 2. Stanza 2. Dunn
3. Cannon 3. Canto 3. comb
4. Negro 4. Balcony
5. Desperado 5. Fascist
6. Matador
7. Renegrade
8. Booby
9. Galleon
10. Comrade
11. Bravado
12. Cargo
13. Embarge
14. Esplanade
15. Stevedore
16. Camisole
17. Picaresque
18. Stampede
19. Cafeteria
[Link]
21. Bababa
22. Good taste
23. Point of honour
24. Armada

9. Germanic Languages:
 Dutch, Flemish, Frisian influenced English
 Dutch’s influence:
- Skipper
- Groove
- Luck
- Booze
- Hope
 Euripean Influences:

Arab - algebra, magazine

 Sanskrit - chess
China - tea
Catamaran - Tamil
Portuguese - mandarcin
Russian - Mammoth Bolsherit
Turkish - coffee
Malaysia - bamboo
Japan - Tycoon
Hebrew - Sabbath

3. Word Making

1. Imitation:

 Imitation is called as Root Creation, Onomatopoeic, Echoic process.

 The word is created by the sounds.
 E.x. click, hiss, blow, flash, scream, clip, snap, whistle, bang, pop, giggle.
 These are called as echoic words by murray.
 E.x. buzz, bhud, cuckoo, basbarus

2. Extension: (multiple Meaning)

 A word is given a new significance and its meaning is extended.

 Ex. Board it stands for
Plant - Pedant
Wood - Manufacture
Table - plunder
Food - propaganda
Notice board
people

3. Shortening:

 shortening is called as clipped words

 short form of a word becomes a word
- photo - Photograph
- Zoo - Zoological Gardens
- Lab - Laboratory
- Maths - Mathematics
- Prof - professor
- Exam - examination
- Extra - extraordinary
- Bike - bicycle
 - Bike - Motorcycle
- Pram - perambulator
Abbreviation:
 Initial letters become a word
E.x 1. BA - Bachelor of Arts
2. MA - Master of Arts
3. UGC-University Grants Commission
4. MP - Member of the Parliament

5. Acronym:

 Initial letters become a word

E.x AIDS – ACQUIRED IMMUNI Deficiency Syndrome

6. Derivation:

 Word is created by adding a suffix, prefix

Ex. Suffixes
Kingdom
Friendship

Prefixes

Inside

Unseen

7. Back formation:

 word is created by removing actual or supposed affixes

ex.
Begger - to beg greedy - greed
Editor - to edit gloomy- gloom
Peddler- to peddle gloveling- to glovel
Burglar - to burgle
Television to televise
Donation to donate
8. Composition:
 Composition is called as compound words
 It is the process of joining two independent words together to form a new word
Ex. 1. Black+bird = blackbird
2. gold+ fish = goldfish
 3. break + fast= breakfast
4. hot + bed = hotbed

9. Telescoping:

 Two words are combined to make a new word

Ex. 1. At + one - atone
2. do + on - don
3. do + off - doff
4. do + out - doubt
5. pin +afare - pinafore
6. over + all - overall

10. Portmanteau words:

 It is called as blended words.

 Past of one word is combined with past of another word to form a new word.
Ex. 1. Tragedy + comedy - tragicomedy
2. breakfast + lunch - brunch
3. melody + drama - melodrama
4. education +entertainment - edutainment

11. Syncopation:

 A vowel elides and the consonants on the either side run together in a word.
Ex. 1. Ones - once
2. Henes - hence
3. Pram - pram
4. Boren - born
5. toren - torn

12. Metanalysis:

 The consonant of one word is attached to the vowel of next word.

 The vowel is attached to the consonant of nex word.
Ex. 1. An ickname - a nickname
2. an ewt - a newt
3. a numpire - an umpire
4. a norange - an orange
5. a nanger - an anger

13. Corruption or misunderstanding:

 When a foreign word is mispronounced the corrupt form becomes a new word.
 EX. 1. God be with you - goodbye
2. White Sunday - Whitsun day
3. Jew Parti - jeoparady
4 Sil vous plait - Civil play
5. God rot it - drat it

14. False Etymology:

Many words have atytained their present forms through mistaken ideas about their
etymology.
Ex. 1. Help + meet - helpmate
2. salt + saler - saltcellar
3 Post+humous - Posthumous

15. Slang terms:

 Slang terms came to be regarded as good English with the lapse of time
Ex. 1. Chap - (dealer of stolen goods)
2. fun - ( a slippery trick)
3. jilt - (a tricking women)
4 blackguard (a dirty fellow)
5 bet - a wager
6 cove - to
7 Pinch - to steal
8 adriff- loose
9. balderdash - adulterated wine

16. Proper Nouns:

 A number of words are derived from proper nouns

e.g.1. Boycott
Captain Boycott is an agent for Irish estates
Irish workers organized strike against firm
2. Utopian
Thomas Moore’s Utopia
Utopia means ideal government
Utopia means ideal persom

3. Lilliputiah

Swift contributed Lilliput in his Gulliver’s Travels

 4. Sandwich

Lord Sandwich invented this kind of refreshment

5. Sadism

Marquise sade combined sexual pervession with a lust of cruelty

6. Guy
Guy Fawker involved in the Gunpowder Plot

7. Pullman Coach
Pullman was an American Engineer

8. Biropon
Lazio Biro invented the pen
9. Calico
It is from Calicut
10. Millinory
It is from Milan
11. Bedlam
It is from name of the Hospitalof [Link] of Bethleham, Londam
12. Damask
It is from Damascus

17. Part of speech:

 One part of speech is used as another part of speech.

e.g. Noun Verb
1. import import
2. permit permit
3. subject subject
4. conduct conduct

18. Conscious coinages:

 When a new invention is made, a new name is given to it.

e.g. 1. Telephone

2. Telegraph

3. Telescope
 4. Television

19. Borrowing: or Loan words:

 Some words are directly borrowed from French languages

e.g. 1. Telephone (Greek)
2. algepra (Arabic)
3. mosquito (Spanish)
4. Catamaran (Tamil
5. Bandobust (Hindi)

20. Freak Formation:

 Some words are came by unusual way

e.g. teetotallar
- the result of the attempt of a stammering advocate to pronounce ‘
total abstainel’.
 Tendem
 Puplican
 THE GROWTH OF VOCABULARY

The English language assumed its present form with regard to its grammar, spelling and
pronunciation by the middle or the 17th century. Development in the direction of enlargement of
vocabulary and changes in the meaning words took place after the Restoration.

Enlargement of vocabulary is an inevitable outcome of the need to express new ideas, new
shades of meaning or to give names to inventions and discoveries. The genius of the language
also deserves a special mention in this regard. English has the capacity not only to absorb words
from other languages but also to make new words where the existing words become inadequate.
The following are some of the methods by which English vocabulary has been enriched:

By imitation or Onomatopoeia: this is one of the oldest and crudest methods of word
making and also an important source of all languages. A number of words that describe
some kind of sound are imitative in character. Eg. Bang, buzz, click, hiss, giggle and
thud. The word ‘cuckoo’ is clearly an attempt to represent the bird’s distinctive call. The
Latin ‘barbarus’ is an imitation of the uncouth and unintelligible babbling of the foreign
tribes.
By extension of meaning: Sometimes an older word is given a new significance or its
meaning is extended. The word ‘literary’ originally meant ‘alphabetical’, but now it
means ‘pertaining to literature’.

Other examples

Word Original meaning Present meaning

Pedant A school master One who likes to display his learning
Manufacture To make by hand To make in a factory or industry
Plunder House hold things Things robbed during war or civil disorder
Propaganda Religious committee Publicity for any cause-religious, political,
for organizing and sociological, philanthropic etc.
directing mission
work (religious
publicity

By the use of one part of speech as another. A characteristic feature of English is its
ability to use the same word as noun, verb, adjective and many other parts of speech.
e.g. ‘but’ and ‘if’ are conjunctions; but they become nouns in ‘I don’t want any ‘buts’ and
‘ifs’.
The most frequent interchange is between nouns and verbs.
e.g. park-topark, pocket-to pocket.
The nouns signifying the principal parts of the body can be used as verbs.
 e.g. to head a ball, to face a danger, to eye a person with suspicion to thumb a book , to
low a line.
Sometimes adjectives are used as nouns after omitting the noun that it originally
qualified.
e.g.
principals (in a play or a choir) from principal performers.
An army conducting an offensive from an offensive action.
A submarine from a submarine vessel or boat.
Wireless from wireless telegraphy.
An executive from a person occupying an executive position
By the addition of suffixes or prefixes: this is an ancient method used by the Anglo-
Saxons. They took a simple root wored and added a suffix to express a related idea.

e.g. kingdom, freedom, kingship, scholarship, length, strength and width.

Many of these are obsolete because there are no longer used to make new words. Many
suffixes that are still used are of French origin. The suffixes used in the following words belong
to this category: careless, clownish, healthy, ducking, richness, doctorate, glorious, government,
economist, socialism and cigarette.

The most frequently used suffixes are –ee and –en.

e.g. employee. Nominee, refugee, payee, fasten, lengthen, shorten.

After 1850 prefixes have been employed much more than suffixes. Many of them have
come from Latin.

e.g. ambi-, ante-, pre-, post-, con-, inter-, extra-, super-, circum-.

Of the native prefixes un- is still use, but for- has disappeared (e.g. forlom, forbid,
forgive, forget, forgo).

By Abbreviation: By this process an abbreviation form of a word becomes a recognized

word. Words like, exam, maths an lab are in common use, though not accepted by
pedants and purists. But words like Zoo (zoological gardens), bus (omnibus), photo
(photography(, pram (perambulator) and Nazi (National Socialist) have been accepted by
one and all as good English.

In the case of some abbreviated, their original forms are not at all familiar to the people,

e.g.

mob - mobile vulgus (the fickle crowd’ in Latin)

cab - cabriolet (French)

 taxi - Taxi-cab (taximeter cabriolet i.e. a vehicle with a meter to record
tax or fare)

chap - chapman (18th century usage which means ‘ a dealer’)

fan - fanatic

piano - pianoforte

cinema - cinematograph

Each section of the community, like the students, sportsmen, doctors, concertgoers and
broadcasters used a particular set of abbreviations. E.g. varsity, poor, exam, lab, vac (used by
students)

Sometimes a lengthy Latin Phrase is clipped down to one or two words: quorum (of whom)
affidavit (he has sworn), subpoena (under the penalty) veto (forbid) , status quo (the state
existing before war).

By Syncopation: this process consists in the elision (dropping) of a vowel so as to allow

the consonants on either side to run together. As a result of this, a syllabi is lost.

e.g. pram from ‘peram’ of perambulator

once from ones (disyllabic)

hence from ones (disyllabic)

bom from boren (disyllabic)

torn from toren (disyllabic)

By Telescoping: it is similar to syncopation. But instead of two syllables, two words are
combined to make a new word.
e.g. to don from to do on
To droff from to do off
At one from at on
Pinafore from pin afore
Overall from over all.
By Met analysis (Re-analysis or different analysis): This is the result of a change in the
word boundaries in careless pronunciation. Two types of processes are involved in this
method:
The consonant at the end of one word is attached to the vowel at the beginning of the next
word.
 e.g. an nickname becomes a nick name (like, a variant of eke means also – so it means a
name in addition to one’s real name)

[Link] becomes tawdry (adj) (jewellery, dress etc that are showy but cheap or in bad taste)

The consonant ‘n’ at the beginning of a word gets attached to the preceding article ‘a’ .

e.g. a numbire becomes an umpire

a napron becomes an apron

a norange becomes an orange,

Portmanteau Words: Part of one word is combined with part of another word to form a
new word. The word thus coined carries the idea of both the original words.

E,g, tragedy+comedy – tragicomedy

Melody+drama-melodrama

Lump+hunch-lunch

Electric+excute-electrocute

Smoke+fog-smog

Communist+internatonal-coimtem ( a party dissolved in 1943)

Words coined out of initials: Sometimes initials are more commonly used than the actual
words. They can almost be regarded as words by themselves. E.g. PLUTO ((Pipe Line
Under The Ocean) UNESCO, Nato.
Back-information: While most of the derivatives in English are made from smaller words
by adding a prefix or suffix, a few words are derived in a reverse process. Many of these
back-formations are the result of misunderstanding while some of them have been
deliberate coinages.

e.g. begger - to be

peddier - to peddle

editor - to edit

burglar - to burglar

television - to televise
 donation - to donate

greedy - greed

gloomy - gloom

groveling - to grovel

Corruption or Misunderstanding: when native speakers mispronounce a foreign word, the

corrupt form becomes a new word.
e.g. Sil Vous plait-civil play
cha-char
experiential docet-experientia does it
Sometimes some less familiar English words also suffer the same fate
e.g.
Sparrowgrass-asparagus
God be with you-goodbye
While Sunday –Whitsun day, Whitsun week, Whitesun Sunday
False Etymology: Many words have attained their present forms through mistaken ideas
about their etymology
E.g.
Saltceller-saler is a vessel to hold salt. So salt saler itself is an unnecessary coinage but
from this we have saltcellar.
Helpmate-‘help’ means a companion and ‘meet’ means fitting or suitable (see Bible-
Genesis: “I will make him a help meet for him”) from ‘help+meet’, we have helpmate.
Slang terms: the word ‘slang’ was once called ‘cant’. It referred to the type of language
used by thiees, smugglers and the underworld generally. Lexicographers ignored it until
18th centurary. But today a number of these words have come to be accepted as perfectly
good and respectable English. A number of Dictionaries of slang also been published.
e.g.
chap (a dealer in stolen goods) – any person
blackguard (a shabby, dirty fellow) rascal
jilt( a tricking woman) –woman who gives up a lover after giving encouragement or a
promise to marry.

Fun (trick) –joke

Kidnap-(kid nabbing, i.e, child stealing) –carry away somebody by force in order to obtain
money for his return.
 Words derived from proper or personal names: a number of words have been derived
from the name of famous personalities in life, or of characters in literature or from the
names of places.

E.g boycott from Captain Boycott, an unpopular Agent for Irish estates in 1880.

Sadist from Marquis de sade. (1740-1814) who combined sexual perversion with lust for
cruelty.

To lynch from John Lynch of USA (1780) who dispensed justice in an arbitrary fashion.

Machiavellan from Machiavelli, a Philosopher

Liiliputians from Lilliput in swift’s Gulliver’s Travels

Pickwicklans from Dickens’ Pickkwickj Papers

Calico from Calicut

Musin from Mosul

Gin from Geneva

Compounding: Two words are combined to create a new word without loss of any
syllable. Sometimes the two elements are hyphenated.

e.g. weekday, goldfish, blackbird, railway, bookcase, waterproof, air-raid, dug-out, week-
end

17. Concious and deliberate coinages: When a new invention or discovery is made, it has to be
given a new name. Hence new words are deliberately coined. Classical languages have
contributed richly to this process.

e.g.

oxygen, ether, photograph, telephone, telegraph, gramphone, telescope, microscope,

bicycle, glaxo-Greek

radiator, propeller – Latin

automobile, Television, Dictaphone – half Latin and half Greek

mineralogy – English root and Greek suffix

[Link]: In the beginning, English borrowed words only Eropean languages such as
Greek, Latin, Scandinavian, French etc. when England set up its colonies all over the world.
English language became enriched with words from the languages of these colonies. Today, it
can be said with confidence that English has borrowed from practically every language under the
sun.

e.g. algepra (Arabic), Mosquito(Spanish), bandobust (Hindi) Catamaran (Tamil)

[Link] formations: Words once used jovially to refer to something come to stand for the
same.

e.g. teetotaler-result of the attempt of a stammering advocate to pronounce “total abstainer”

tandem (‘at length’ in Latin) – used to refer to two horses placed one behind the other; later, used
to refer to double bicycle.

Publican, inn-keeper (a joke upon the name of the Roman tax-gatherers)

**************

CHANGE OF MEANING

Countless words in the English language have changed their meaning in the course of
time. The words ‘battle’, ‘fond’, ‘presently’ and ‘prevent’ once meant ‘a company of soldiers’,
‘foolish’, ‘immediately’ and guide respectively. But we know that these words have different
meanings now. Sometimes a word may evoke different associations for different persons or
different times. The word ‘pipe’ may mean different things to the smoker, the plumber, and the
musician. The word ‘vollain’ once meant ‘a very lowly labourer’; later on the emphasis shifted
from the social position or occupation to his ‘uncouth manners and behavious’. But today a
‘villain’ is ‘an evil doer’. There are various methods by which words have changed their
meanings. The following are some of the important methods:

Generalization (or Extension): By this purpose, a word, which once had a specialized
and restricted meaning once, comes to have a wider application. For example, the word
‘box’ was originally the name of a tree. Boxwood, being rare and expensive, was used
exclusively for makingsmall jewellery caskets. Then it was applied to small cases made
of any wood, the big one being called a ‘chest’. But after the 18th century, a box may be
of any material and also of any size. (Also box in a theatre, horse-box on the railway etc.)
other emamples:
Change of Meaning

Generalization:
 A word acquires multiple meanings
 It also is called as Polysemy, Extension, widening.
 It is particular to general.

Word Original meaning Current meaning

Box Box tree Container, Compartment, Shelter

 A process of change of meaning occurs in a word.

Specialization:
 A word’s generalized meaning is restricted to a pasticular meaning.
 It is also called as Restriction, Narrowing
 It is general to particular.

Meat Food Eatable flesh

Doctor Learned Man Physician

Differentiation:
 A word preserves the original meaning and acquires a different additional
meaning.
 It is also called as transference.

Word Original meaning Additional meaning

Wire A metallic filament Telegram

Krane A kind of bird A machine

Horse Animal energy

Association of ideas:
 It is a gradual shifting of emphasis from the original meaning to some associated
characteristics.
 Original meaning is lost.
 Vulgarity Crowd behavior Low taste

Traffic Trade or Commerce Movement of vehicles

Renegeneration:
 A word undergoes a change of meaning for favourable implication.
 It is also called as amelioration, Elevation.

Enthusiasm Fanaticism Egerness

Degeneration:
 A word undergoes a change of meaning for unfavourable implication;
 It is also called as deterioration.

Lust Love Sexual Desire

 Polarisation: (Colouring)
 A word acquires an emotional significance in course of time.

Committee of Roman
Propaganda Publicity
Catholic Church

Depolarization: (loss of distinctive colouring):

 A word loses its colour in course of time.

Politics Dishonesty, trickery Prudent, wise

Emphemism:
 It is the habit of avoiding an unpleasant idea by substituting some indirect word.
e.g. Passed away for Death
Commentary for burial ground
Lunacy for madness

[Link]:

 It is the false sense of delicacy and refinement.

e.g. - Paying guest for Boarders
- Financier for money lender
 - Sanitary engineer for Plumber
- Fallan woman for Prostitute
- Lavatory for Latrine
- expectorate for spit

11. Metaphorical Application:

 The figurative sense of a word becomes one of its meanings

Literal sense presents

Word Literal sense Metaphorical
sense
Sharp Sharp knife Sharp memory
Sharp intelligence
Bright Bright colour Bright boy, bright
future

Literal sense loses

Word Literal sense Metaphorical
sense
Silly Happy Stupid
Broadcasr Sowing seeds Broadcasting

12. Popular Misunderstanding:

 Misunderstanding of the people causes for the change of meaning.

Promises Given facts House or building

Emergency Comes to the surface urgency
Helpmate
Helpmeet Suitable companion
Partner, wife
Undulate Wave Hilly place

[Link] of Meaning:

 The original meaning is quite opposite to the original meaning.

Grocer Wholesale Retailer

Restive Rost impatient
14. Proper Nouns:

 Some proper nouns has become ordinary parts of speech.

Dunce Duns Scotus – Fool

Medival philosopher
Guy Guy Fawks- Man
Gun power plot
Atlas Mythologicalfigure Map
Sedlam Bethlehem Hospital Lunatic asylum
of asylum
Hooligans Irish family Rowdy
(rowdies)

15. Influence of form:

 One form of word influence the change of another word.

Protagonist Supporter Main character

16. Loss of Intensity:

 Certain words lose their intensity according to situations

Hell Inferno, underworld Discomfort

Generalization:
 Journey - day walk - Long travel
 Journal - daily events - weekly, monthly
journal
 Companion - eats bread with another - friend
 Comrade - shares room with another - friend
 Cary - transporting vehicle - carrying anything
 Cry - loud noise - weeping, tears
 Drive - driving sheep - driving anything

 Tragedy - a kind of dream - wider sense

Specialization:
 Deer - wild animal - deer only
 Starve - die - die of hunger
 Fowl - any bird - particular bird
 Shroud - any garment - covering dead body
 Voyage - journey - journey by sea
 Cousin - Any Relative - brother
Differenciation:
 Ring - any ring - Telephone ring
 Kite - bird - paper toy
 Fret - to eat - worry
 Brand - buring wood - trade mark
Association of ideas:
 Heathan - Heath-dwellers - non-religious
 Pagan - rustic dwellers - non-religious
 Crescent - growing - concave moon
 Yard - stick - Measurement
Regeneration:
 Gothic - rude behavior - admirable
 Romantic - rude behavior - admirable
Degeneration:
 Gauy - brilliant - hateful
 Notorious - well known - mischievous
Polarisation:
 Nationalism - without racism - National Feelings
 Anarchist - oppose Totalitatrian - Causes disruption
Government
Depolarisation:
  Christian
 Methodism - they have lost their colour
 quaker

Specialisation from generalization to specialiation

Words Old Present

Fowl Bird Particular bird
Deer Wild animals Particular animal
Starve To die To die of hungry
Slay To kill by any other method To kill by a blow
(derived from slagen(to strike)
Toy Any kind of triviality or A child’s plaything
bauble
Bushel Means first of all a basket The content of a basket of a
particular capacity
To read To guess a riddle Interpretation of written
characters
To write To scratch Write letters or number
 [Link] Transference followed by differentiation of Meaning

Some words undergo a change of meaning by differentiation. One word has two possibly
more specialized meaning.

Word Past Meaning Present Meaning

Wire Telegram Metallic filament
Fret (comes from To eat Worry
Fretan)
Horse Animal Energy
Brand To Born Quality
Fine Finished Sharpness and quality (A pen with a
fine quality Cloth of fine quality
Fast [Link] moving Quick moving
2. remaining firm
Window Wind eye Wind Carrier (English)
Ventilator (Latin)

4. Association of Ideas

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Villein A Labourer on the manorial Villain
estate or Peasant
Vulgarity Such behavior as would be Such behavior can be from common
expected from the crowd and popular or from individual
Churl Countryman or present Unlearned ignorant
Traffic Trade and commerce (busier Vehicles passing to and fro through
the street) the streets of a town
Heathen Heathweller Christian says heathens to non
Christian
Dilapidated State of decay for nuilding Now for everything (dilapidated
(only construction) clothes, dilapidated book etc.
Cresent Growing Curve shape like the arc of a circle
(Latin –crescens) Ex. Growing moon Ex. A crescent moon
Reek Smoke Pungent or offensive smell
To drive Pushing or urging on Keeping in motion (vehicles)
Sabotage Willful wrecking of Diaguise
machinery
Neglect of duty
Prophet Spokesman of god Ability to foresee
Predict events
Panel Rectangular piece of List
cloth or paper
 [Link] of Colouring

A word acquires a define colouring

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Gothic Derogatory sense Gothic style in literature
Uncouth, barbarous or (admired and praised)
wanting in taste
Romantic Rude and Barbarious Admired and praised
Enthusiasm Fanaticism smart

Partriotism and Nationalism both words refer to the same kind of devotion to national causer
but if we approve of it we call it patriotism, if we disapprove we call it nationalism.

[Link] of Distinctive Colouring

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Brave Boastful Brado Brave and courage become one
Policy, politics and Trickery and dishonesty Bring to nought their intrigues or
politician useless
Christian Term of derision An identity
Mohammeddanism Evil one Casual term or identity

7. Metaphorical Application
The words fall under 2 categories

Those where the literal use is still preserved

Those where the metaphorical sense has gained precedence over

1st category –keen, dull, sharp, bright, volatile

2nd category – sad

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Sad Full of thought or Full of sorrow
seriousness
Silly Happy Simple or innocent or stupid
Broadcast Spreading of information far Dissemination of news, music, talk
and wide by word of mouth etc by wireless
Bright Bright colour Bright boy or bright future
Pinecone Ananas pineapple
 8. Euphemism

Telling unpleasant word ---------to--------------less offensive name

Unpleasant word Less offensive word

Death Passing and decese
To die To pass away or to fall asleep
Happening Accident
Ont whom something has befallen Casuality
Deadly Fatality
Madness or mental Lunatic, idiot, insane

[Link]
The euphemistic expressions are traceable to a false sense of delicacy and refinement to avoid
giving pain in other words to prudery. This is also like euphemism.

Old word New word

Boarder Paying guest
Money lender Financier
Book marker Turf accountant
Manure Fertilizer
Lavatory Toilet
Spit Expectorate
Guts and belly Stomach
Plumbers Sanitary engineers
Approaching birth Interesting event
Pregnant Certain condition
Table-napkin Serviette
Muckinder kerchief

[Link] of Meaning

Word Old meaning Present meaning

Grocer Wholesaler Retail trader
Restive At rest or still Impatient or fretful of tense
Scan To read through carefully To read through rapidly and
perfunctorily

[Link] Misunderstanding
 Words Meaning Misunderstanding
Dulating Flat or level Students misunderstood un-
was not derived from latin
Unda-a wave
To demean Hilly Mean
Emergency Something that comes to the Urgency
surface
Pester Entangle Disturbance
Premises Syllogism or chain of Property
argument In old legal document – refer
back to property “things
mentioned before”
Ex. Premises means a house, a
building etc.

The adjective Preposterous. It is a combination of pre and post (before and after) and in the
literal sense it means – the cart is put before the horse. If a business man had to submit to the
authority of one who was his subordinate that might.

12. Proper Noun become or dinary parts of speech

- An atlas is so called from the fact that at one time the figure of atlas, bearing the world on
his shoulder, was printed on the front of it.
- Bedlam - derived from abbreviation of Bethlehem Hospital, famous lunatic asylum of
London. Shakespear used Bedlam for madman. But –present-noise and confusion
- Dunce - derived from – Duns Scottus-whose opponents represented him as a dry –as-
dust theorist, devord of true scholarship-old meaning- a pretender to learning one who is
uninspired and uninspearing – Pope understood by it when the pilloried the dunces of his
day in his satirical poem. The danuad – present meaning-Block head
- Sheridor’s Malpropism- wrong pronounciation
- Glad – smooth- bright, happy