Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

• The electrical resistance of some metals change with change in temperature. Resistance
thermometer utilizes this characteristic.

• With the increase of temperature, the electrical resistance of some metals increases in direct
proportion to the rise of temperature, so if the electrical resistance of a wire of known and
calibrated material is measured, the temperature of the wire can be determined.

• In this type of thermometer, a temperature sensitive resistance element is fabricated in a

suitable probe form to insert in a medium whose temperature is to be measured. Resistance
elements are generally long, spring like wires enclosed in a metal sheath as shown in Fig.

• The conductors used for resistance thermometer are platinum, nickel of various purities.

• Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements due to its chemical inertness,
nearly linear and large enough temperature versus resistance relationship and stability.

• The resistance element is surrounded by a porcelain insulator which prevents short circuit
between wire and the metal sheath.

• Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire.

• When this instrument is placed in a liquid or a gas medium whose temperature is to be

measured, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium.

• This change in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool, resulting
in a proportional change in the wires resistance.

• This change in resistance can be directly calibrated to indicate the temperature.

• Rt = R0 (1 + at+bt2+ct3)

• Resistance of metal at temperature ‘t’ is given by

• Where:
 • R0 = Resistance at reference (usually at ice point, 0° C), Ω

• Rt = Resistance at temperature t, Ω

• a= Temperature coefficient of resistance, Ω / Ω (°C)

• b, c = coefficients calculated on the basis of two or more known resistance-temperature

(calibration)points

• The common configuration of RTD has the platinum resistance element range in length from
1/8" to 3". The standard resistance is 100 Ω at 0° C.

• The most common outside diameter is 1.5 to 12.5 mm. The 316 Stainless steel is commonly
used tubing material. RTDs are available in 2, 3 and 4 wire configuration and 3 wire
configurations are the most common for industrial applications.

• Teflon and fiberglass are the standard wire insulation materials. Three wire RTDs normally
use a Wheatstone bridge measurement circuit to measure the resistance. Now when sensing
element resistance changes, the wheat-stone bridge becomes unbalanced and thus
galvanometer will give deflection which can be calibrated to give suitable temperature scale.

• Resistance thermometers possess high accuracy of measurement. They have a wide

temperature range from – 200 to 650°C. They are fast in response and have good
reproducibility. The limitations include their high cost, requirement of a bridge circuit and
power supply.

• They are widely used in HTST pasteurizer and spray dryers.

Thermocouples
 The working principle of a thermocouple depends on the thermo-electric effect.
 When two dissimilar metals are joined so as to form a closed circuit, there are two
junctions where they meet each other.
 If one of those junctions is heated, then, a current flows in the circuit which can be
detected by a galvanometer.
 The amount of the current produced depends on the temperature difference between
the two junctions and on the characteristics of the two metals.
 This was first observed by Seebeck in 1821 and is known as Seebeck effect. The wires
are joined at the ends which form two junctions – a measuring junction and a reference
junction. Heating the measuring junction produces a voltage greater than the voltages
across the reference junction.
 The difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted
to its corresponding temperatures. The conversion table is generally supplied by the
 thermocouple manufacturers. There are various types of thermocouples which are used in
industries, viz. Copper constantan, iron constantan, chromel alumel, platinum rhodium
and chromels-constantan.

Thermocouples can be classified in two categories

i) Base metal thermocouples
ii) Rare metal thermocouples
 Base-metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloy of iron, copper
and nickel and are used up to 1450 K. These types of thermocouples are more sensitive,
cheaper and have nearly linear characteristics. But operating range is low and vulnerable
to oxidation.
 Rare-metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metal and alloys of platinum,
tungsten, rhodium, molybdenum etc. which are used for higher temperature
measurement up to 2500oC

Sr. No. Type Thermocouple Useful temperature range ( oC) Sensitivity

(μV/oC)

1. T Copper-Constantan -180 to 400 20-60

2. J Iron-Constantan -180 to 850 50-55

3. K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 1300 40-55

4. E Chromel-Constantan -180 to 850 50-80

5. R Platinum-Platinum/13%Rhodium 0 to 1600 5-12

6. S Platinum-Platinum/10%Rhodium 0 to 1400 5-12

• When high sensitivity is required, thermocouples are attached in series. This is known as
thermopile.

• The thermocouples used in industries consist of a protective well and head across the
measuring junction to protect thermocouples from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids,
mechanical damage and to support the thermocouples to avoid damages in pressurized
systems.

• Thermocouples can be connected in parallel to provide the average temperature in a system.

• They can also be used to measure the difference between two temperatures.

• A single thermocouple can be utilized by two separate measuring instruments, with proper
precautions.

• The e.m.f. charts and tables for various thermocouples are available.

• The thermocouple tables are based upon the reference junction temperature of 0°C, therefore,
a direct conversion from the tables can be made only when an ice bath is used at the reference
junction. If it is not possible to maintain the reference junction temperature at 0°C a correction
factor must be applied to the milli volt values shown in the thermocouple tables.

• Thermocouples are cheaper than RTD.

• They are rugged in construction and can be used for wide temperature range.

• No external power is required.

• They are simpler to use than resistance thermometers.

• There is no need of a bridge circuit.

• They have extremely wide temperature range from – 270°C to 2800°C.

• Their electrical output is adaptable to a variety of readout and / or control devices.

• They can process long transmission distances.

• However they have some disadvantages, such as, their instability, low and non-linear output
signal. They need to hold reference junction temperatures constant or compensation for any
deviations. They require signal amplification for many applications and need expensive
accessories for control applications.

Thermistor

• Thermistor or thermal resistor is thermal sensitive resistor.

• Its resistance changes with temperature.

• Depending upon the way it responds to temperature, the change in

resistance character divides the thermistor into two types.

• The positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor is that in which

resistance of the thermistor increases with the increase in temperature.
These thermistors are usually made from Barium, Titanate.

• The negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor in which, resistance

of thermistor decreases with increase in temperature.

• In broad term a thermistor is semiconductor component that behave as a

resistor with usually, negative temperature coefficient of resistance. In
some cases, resistance of a thermistor at room temperature may decrease
to 5 percent for each one degree Celsius rise in temperature.

• [Link] the comparison between the changes in resistance due to

change in temperature for both the thermistors and the RTD. Positive
resistance-temperature correlation in RTD and high negative correlation for
thermistors. Thermistors are composed of mixture of metallic oxides such
as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available
in a number of configurations, as shown in Fig..2. Most familiar is the bead
 type, usually glass coated. They can also be made into washers, discs or
rods. Thermistors can also be encapsulated in plastic, cemented, and
soldered in bolts, encased in glass tubes, needles or a variety of other
forms. These assemblies serve to support the sensors, protect against
damage to the wires, direct flow across the unit uniformly, permit sealing
of conduits or flow lines, and provide for easier handling.

• Pyrometers

• When temperature to be measured is high and physical contact with the

hot body or medium is not possible, pyrometers are used to measure the
temperature.

• Pyrometers are used under conditions where corrosive vapours or liquid

could damage the thermocouples, resistance thermometer and Thermistor.

• The pyrometers also find applications where the temperatures are above
the range of thermocouple.

• There are two types of pyrometers which are commonly used, viz. radiation
pyrometers and optical pyrometers.
 • The radiation pyrometer measures the heat emitted by a hot object.

• The radiation pyrometers operate on the principle that the energy radiated
from a hot body is a function of its temperature.

• Basically, thermal radiations are electromagnetic radiation lies in the

wavelength region from about 0.1 to 100 micrometer.

• The energy radiated by the hot body whose temperature is measured is

focused by the lens to the detector.

Radiation Pyrometer
The detector is usually a thermocouple and the detector output is given to a
PMMC instrument, digital display or recorder.

There are two principles used for the construction of radiation temperature
measuring devices. The Total radiation pyrometer is one in which the total
radiant energy from a heated body is measured, and the Selective radiation
pyrometer in which the radiated energy from the heated body is measured at a
given wavelength.

A total radiation pyrometer is shown in Fig. 3. Radiations from hot object is

collected and focussed on a thermocouple with the help of a mirror. This
increases the thermocouple temperature and generates an emf.

The rise in temperature is the function of amount of radiation emitted by the hot
object.
 This instrument has a high speed of response and is primarily used to measure
the temperature in the range of 700 to 2000°C. Direct contact is not necessary
with the object whose temperature is to be measured.

Optical Pyrometer:

The principle of temperature measurement by brightness comparison is used in

optical pyrometer. A colour variation with the growth in temperature is taken as
an index of temperature.

The optical pyrometer compares the brightness of image produced by

temperature source with that of reference temperature lamp.

The current in the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is equal to the
brightness of the image produced by the temperature source.

Since the intensity of light of any wave length depends on the temperature of the
radiating object, the current passing through the lamp becomes a measure of the
temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.