SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A SEDIMENTARY ROCK is by definition an accumulation of sediments derived

from the destruction of landforms and/or resulting from organic and/or chemical activities
Four processes lead to the formation of rocks
sedimentary: the superficial alteration of materials that
produces particles, the transport of these particles by the
river, the wind or the ice that brings these particles into
the deposition environment, the sedimentation that causes these particles
settle in a given environment to form a sediment and,
finally, the diagenesis that transforms sediment into rock
sedimentary.
 THE ALTERATION

Biological

Chemical

Physics
 TRANSPORT

Wind turbine Glacier

Water
 SEDIMENTATION AND DIAGENESIS

Diagenesis refers to all the physicochemical changes that a undergoes.

sediment, after deposition, in conditions of "low" pressure and temperature that
reign in sub-surface environment.
The Detrital Rocks

These are the most abundant sedimentary rocks. They are classified according to size or
particle size of the elements that constitute them.
The Sandstones

Sandstones are sedimentary detrital rocks primarily containing

small elements, ranging from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm, and bound by cement.

Quartz sandstone: the rock has a fine appearance and touch.

gritty. The acid test shows no effervescence.
which excludes its limestone nature. On the other hand, the hardness, superior
to that of glass, indicates the presence of quartz, confirmed by
the gray glassy appearance of the grains, and allows us to conclude to the
detrital or terrigenous nature of this rock.

Arkose sandstone: The rock also has a finely grained appearance.

granularity and hardness are higher than that of glass. But
the grains are often a pinkish white that evokes the
feldspars. And certain levels are largely colored by some
iron oxides or rubified. This feldspathic sandstone is
also named arkosic sand (or arkose if the feldspars
are predominant on the quartz).

Shell limestone: is characterized by the presence of

numerous fossils, here gastropod shells.
The Conglomerates

These are rocks containing elements larger than 2 mm, bound by a cement.
The shape of the cemented elements, angular or rounded, allows to distinguish the breccias.
and the pounding respectfully.
The cement of conglomerates is also of variable nature (carbonate, clayey or
siliceous) which can be specified by a test with diluted hydrochloric acid and a test of
hardness.
The Marls and the Shales

These are rocks containing elements of very small size, invisible to the naked eye.

When the clay content of a limestone is between 5 and 35%, the rock is a limestone.
marneux, between 35 and 65%, unemarne, between 65 and 95%, a clay marne, and over 95% a
argillite. Similarly, some argillites that slightly scratch glass have a higher fracton or
less notable quartz which leads to the mention of clayey sandstones.
The diluted acid test indicates effervescence, which suggests the calcareous nature of the rock.
But this rock also grabs the tongue, which is a characteristic of clay rocks. This rock
which presents both limestone and clay elements is therefore a marl. Its low hardness (it is
scratched by the nail) makes it very brittle.
On the other hand, shales are dark rocks because they are rich in organic matter.
effervescence with acid. Their hardness is average (they do not scratch glass or very little but do not
not scratched by the nail) which excludes a strictly sandy nature. These are ancient clay sediments
hardened, that is to say desarginites.
Carbonate Rocks

Rocks primarily formed of CaCO3 and to a lesser extent CaMg(CO3)2. The

Limestones contain at least 50% CaCO3. In addition, their hardness is lower than that of
glass or iron, the criterion for identifying limestone rocks is the acid test.
diluted hydrochloric acid: they fizz at cold.
Dolomites are light-colored rocks, ranging from grayish to light beige.
harder than ordinary limestone, and rougher to the touch.
The flint: Siliceous sedimentary rock formed by
silica precipitation in solution from
spicules of sponges. Round shape, very hard that
can present itself in several forms: opal,
chalcedony.
The Evaporites

These are chemically originated sediments that precipitate from water due to evaporation and
progressive concentration.
They appear well crystallized with crystals often visible to the naked eye. They are
primarily gypsum or calcium sulfate CaSO4, 2H2O, halite (rock salt) or chloride of
sodium NaCl, and lasylviteou potassium chloride KCl.
Evaporites are recognizable by their sedimentary layering, their solubility, and their flavor in
as for chlorides, as well as their low hardness. Gypsum, with a hardness of 2 on the scale of
Mohs is one of the few minerals that can be scratched with a fingernail. These rocks do not effervesce.
the acid and are fossil-free.
The Carbonaceous Rocks

Sedimentary rock containing carbon in varying proportions, originating from the

transformation of organic matter: coal, lignite, peat, hydrocarbon

Rock made of plant fibers

aggregated, in the process of decomposition.

Rock with fibrous structure, debris

recognizable plants, brown color
darker and more recent than coal.

Black and greasy rock.

 MAGMATIC ROCKS
Igneous rocks (magmatic or endogenous) result from solidificationton
(crystallization) of magmas at the surface (volcanism) or underground (plutonism).

Classification of igneous rocks

The mode of formation: plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks;
The chemical composition;
The mineralogical composition;
- La texture des roches.
One of the simplest classifications that exists is based essentially on visible criteria.
(the coloration and texture).
The mineralogical composition

Magmas are natural silicate liquids with a complex chemical composition since we
generally recognizes 11 major elements (Si, Al, Ti, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ca, Na, K, OH, P) and their contents
variables in volatile elements (H2O, CO2, F, Cl,…).

The essential minerals of igneous rocks belong to the class of silicates:

quartz
- feldspaths : orthose KAlSi3O8- albite NaAlSi3O8– anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
- feldspathoids: nephelinite Na3K(AlSiO4)4 - leucite KAlSi2O6
- micas : muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 – biotte K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
pyroxenes
amphiboles

quartz, feldspars, felsparoids = felsic minerals

olivine, biotite, pyroxenes, amphiboles = mafic minerals

+ accessory minerals such as apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl),

{"ilménite":"ilmenite","magnétte":"magnetite","zircon":"zircon","sphène":"sphene"}

CaTiSiO5

fragmented crystallization
Silica is the predominant chemical constituent of most of these rocks, which allows for
divide these rocks into four main categories:

- Acid rocks SiO2>66%

- Saturated or intermediate rocks: SiO2 = 52 to 66%
- Basic or undersaturated rocks: SiO2 = 45 to 52%
- Ultrabasic rocks: SiO2<45%
We can divide the minerals of these rocks into two main groups:

- Clear minerals: quartz, potassium feldspars, plagioclases, feldspathoids, and micas

whites. (rocks of this type are acidic)
- Colored minerals: olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, black micas, and iron oxides and dettane.
This type of rock is basic.

In general, a rock rich in silicon is light-colored, a rock rich in minerals

ferromagnetic is dark.

The coloring P = Quantity of light minerals / dark minerals:

• Hololeucocrates rocks: P > 95%

• White rocks: P = 65 to 95%
• Mesocrate rocks: P = 35 to 65%
• Mélanocratic rocks: P = 5 to 35%
• Holomelanocrate rocks: P < 5%
The texture:
 LatextureOn the scale of the sample, we can distinguish the following textures:

• Green texture: assembly of crystals visible to the naked eye. It is in

particular characteristic of many plutonic igneous rocks (to
slow cooling). (equant or porphyritic)
• Aphanitic or microlitic texture: it applies to magma rocks that do not
do not show visible crystals to the naked eye, apart from a few isolated individuals.
• Vitreous texture: it applies to volcanic magmatic rocks formed
essentially glass. When magma cools very quickly, the atoms
dispersed in the molten matter do not have time to organize into crystalline networks:
This is the case with obsidian.
• Porphyritic texture: The rock contains large crystals clearly visible to the naked eye.
aphanitic rock.
• Vacuolar texture: The rock contains voids

Grainy rocks: all the crystals are

visible to the eye. They are automorphic and
xenomorphs
Microlithic stones: numerous small ones
crystals (microliths) "swim" in a paste
homogeneous

vitreous texture
Obsidian

porphyritic texture

Pegmatite
All crystals are large.
> size in cm
 The mineralogical composition

The classification of magmatic rocks takes into account

some minerals that are classified into four groups:

- The cardinal minerals: They determine the grandes

groups of the classification. These are the quartz, the
feldspar and the feldspathoids.

- Essential minerals: They help to complete the

definition of the rock and to determine the cuttings of
second order. These are the ferromagnetic elements.
in general.

- Accessory minerals: They do not participate in the

classification but present constantly in the
rock, most often in small quantities (apatite, zircon,
..).

- Accidental minerals: They are only present in

certain particular types of rocks (garnets, corundum,
…).
 Plutonic Rocks
• Granite: a coarse-grained rock, of light color (white, gray, pink, red, bluish)
composed essentially of quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase (albite, oligoclase) ± biotite, mica
["white","amphibole","apatite","sphene","zircon"]

• Diorite: coarse-grained rock, mesocratic, mainly composed of plagioclase, amphibole, and

Biotite. Pyroxene may be present. Quartz is absent or scarce.

• Gabbro: a rock that is often coarse-grained, intermediate to mafic, composed mainly of

plagioclase, pyroxenes and olivine.

• Peridotite: coarse-grained plutonic rock, holomelanocratic with 90 to 100% minerals

ferromagnesian (olivine, pyroxenes).
 Granite grain
(Fd pink and white, from Qz
gray and of biotte.

Syenite primarily formed

From alkaline pink Fd. This rock
Granite red pegmatite content little or no quartz.
mainly formed of red Fd,
but also gray quartz, a little bit of
white feldspar and minerals
black.

Granodiorite with phenocrysts of Fd.

Diorite is mainly made up of

rose feldspar and minerals
black ferromagnetics. Quartz is low
visible to the naked eye.
 Mesocratic gabbro
essentially composed of plagioclases
basics and pyroxenes.

Gabbromelanocrate.
The large black crystals are pyroxenes and
the small white spots are feldspars.

Péridotteholomélanocrate
rock entirely crystallized made up
especially of olivine crystals and some
pyroxenes.
 Volcanic Rocks
Volcanic rocks being often aphanitic, they are named after their
mineralogical and chemical composition.

• Rhyolite: it is the volcanic equivalent of granite and often contains quartz crystals.
and orthose (obsidian = entirely vitreous rhyolite)

• Andesite: it is the volcanic equivalent of diorite, often gray in color it contains

phenocrysts of plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, and sometimes pyroxene.

• Basalt: it is the volcanic equivalent of gabbro and represents the most volcanic rock.
abundant (oceanic crust). Black in color, it contains phenocrysts more or
less abundant in plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine.
 Rhyolite with a bubbly texture, light red in color
Lave explosive

Rhyolite with bubbly, light texture with

smooth areas, red in color

Rochelle magmatic effusive and explosive

Obsidian
Rhyolite with a homogeneous, massive texture, volcanic rock
heavy, red in color and with a smooth surface entirely glassy

Roche magma and effusive lava

Black basalt, aphanitic

Porphyritic andesite
intermediate composition
(typical of subduction zones)

Basaltic microlithic containing microliths

plagioclase feldspar whites.

Basal vacuolar
 The difference between basalt and gabbro,
andesite and diorite, rhyolite and granite, do not
is not at the level of the composition
which is the same for each of the pairs,
but at the level of crystallinity (size of
crystals).

4 assemblages define
4 main types of igneous rocks
the geographical distribution of magmas

Andesitic magma is only observed in volcanic provinces.

constituting the "ring of fire" of the Pacific;
Basaltic magmas are essential in the oceanic domain where they form
the ocean floor.
On the continents, there are very vast regions, notably the areas
recent orogenies, where andesitic type outpourings prevail
rhyolitic. In the zones of plutonism, the corresponding composition is
the granite-granodiorite association. The basalts (gabbros) remain however
still here the most abundant volcanic rocks in volume, magmas
basics injected into the crust. They give rise to immense bodies
Plutonic.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphism: a set of mineralogical, structural, and

chemical reactions, which occur in the solid state, under the effect of variations in conditions
physicochemical.
Temperature: Thermal energy is the main factor in metamorphism.

Time: The factor of time is important because it is necessary that:

-The physicochemical conditions are changing permanently for the transformations.
mineralogical and structural processes have time to take place.
-the exhumation speeds are rapid so that the mineralogical transformations and
structural ones should be preserved.
The Pressure:
There are 3 types of pressure:

Lithostatic pressure PL (confinement): Pressure exerted on a rock by surrounding rocks, which

surrounding them.
The PL depends on the density of the rocks and the depth at which it is applied.
The PL does not generate any deformation.

Tectonic constraints TC: Pressure exerted on rocks by the action of tectonic forces
La CTest liée aux chevauchements et aux processus orogéniques.
The CTengendre of deformations as well as the appearance of new structures at
different scales.

- Fluid pressure Pf: Pressure exerted within the pores of rocks by fluids.
It promotes the circulation of fluids and the exchange of matter.

The combined action of these 3 pressures generates transformations:

The Chemical Composition:
During metamorphism, the chemical composition can:
- remain unchanged (except for the contents of H2O and CO2)

- Isochime transformations Mineralogical transformations

Structural transformations

to be significantly modified (by the addition of chemical elements: Si, Al, Na, K, etc)
allochemical transformations
or metasomatic Mineralogical transformations
Structural transformations
Chemical transformations
Types of Metamorphism
There are 2 types of metamorphism.
There is also impact metamorphism and hydrothermal metamorphism.
Contact metamorphism: transformtons related to magmatic intrusions, limited in
space.
The nature of the transformations and their intensities depend on:
the nature of pluton
the distance from the magma,
the nature of the original rocks.

recrystallization upon contact with intrusions

no orientation of the minerals in the rock

In contact with a magmatic intrusion

temperature elevation (constant P)

Contact aureole: Metamorphism

proportional to the magmatic mass and its
température. Phénomène local.

The effect is becoming less and less important as time goes on.
as we move away from the room
magmatic. Cornelian face
 Regional metamorphism: transformstons related to tectonic movements, affecting
vast regions.
The transformations result from:
the burial by subsidence,
the stacking of tectonic units
the subduction or the collision of cc.

recrystallization under constraints

orientation of minerals (schistosity/foliation, lineations)
 The textures of metamorphic rocks

Classification based on two factors: the relative size of the crystals and the shape of the
grains.
When the essential minerals are in grains (quartz, feldspars, carbonates):
granoblastic texture, isograin or heterograin.
When the proportion of sheet minerals (mica type) is significant: texture
lepidoblastic (schists).
When the dominant minerals are in rods or in prisms (amphiboles,
pyroxenes: neoblast texture (amphibolites).
If the rock is rich in porphyroblasts (large crystals that contain
generally quite numerous inclusions that have crystallized in a rock
solid): porphyroblast texture.
granoblastic texture, heterogranular

lepidoblastic texture

nematoblast texture
Mylonites
Texture related to a ductile deformation: mylonitic texture. The minerals are
deformed (wavy extensions), cracked, fractured. Between the elements of great
size, thinner paste corresponding to a more pronounced crushing of the rock
The structures of the rocks in regional metamorphisms
 Structural deformations
Schistosity (S1): reorientation of small-sized grains along parallel planes,
perpendicular to the direction of compression of tectonic stresses.

Fracture schistosity: sheet flow

resulting from fractures along faults.
Flow schistosity: resulting sheet flow rate
of recrystallizations and of stretching.
Foliation: a set of planes, parallel to each other, along which crystallize the
new (dark) minerals formed at high temperature
Structural deformations can
to be observed at different scales
(exposure, rock, thin sheets).

During metamorphism, several (types of) transformations succeed one another in

function of the evolution of the conditions of P and T°.

Apparitions or disappearances of minerals

Apparitions or disappearances of structures
Exchanges of chemical elements

The realization of mineralogical and structural changes depends on

the intensity of metamorphism.
Foliated rocks:
Slates: fine-grained homogeneous rocks possessing a very schistosity
marked and irregular due to the great homogeneity of the material and the absence
of another schistosity strongly intersecting the first. Suppose a story
simple tectonics (little transformed rocks). Equivalent of a schist of
weak metamorphism.
The phyllades: "fine-grained schist", highly "silky" micaceous rocks.
with schistosomiasis. Ambiguous term.
Schists: rocks that have acquired schistosity under the influence of stress
tectonics. Schists are characterized by a somewhat easy flow in sheets (planes of 1 to
10 mm.
The recrystallizations are clearer;
- sericit schist: gray tint, pearly surface, rich in sericite,
- mica schist: very abundant micas (muscovite or biotite). Low metamorphism to
average.
These schists come from the transformation of sedimentary rocks, they derive
of clays and silts (fine-grained sedimentary rocks).

Particular case of schistose rocks: contact metamorphic rock.

presenting an apparently ± schistosity with minerals forming nodules or
stains. Compared to the corneas, the thermal effect is lesser.
Permanent recrystallization: mineralogical & structural transformations;
growth of crystals
Gneiss: foliated rocks with millimeter or centimeter grains,
presenting a better coherence than the schists. Rocks
rich in feldspars (quartz is common but not essential).
We distinguish:
- the gneissoeillés (obsolete term) to feldspathic lentils or
quartz-feldspathic (clasts)
striped gneiss: with quartz-feldspar or feldspar layers
alternating with mica-rich beds.
Ces roches résultent d’un métamorphisme moyen à fort.
The stability of tectosilicates (quartz, feldspars) in a domain
very wide range of temperature and pressure explains the distribution very
large of these minerals. The nature of the other minerals (micas,
amphiboles, pyroxenes...) translates the composition of the rock
initial and the physical conditions encountered.
Leptynites are a particular type of gneiss whose
composition does not allow for the development of a large
proportion of mica.
Granulites: rocks resulting from strong metamorphism.
are fine-grained rocks. Quartz and feldspars are dominant.
Sometimes hypersthene or garnet are present.
orthogneiss and paragneiss
migmattes

Beginning fusion: white pockets of

magma crystallizing into quartz + feldspars
(leucosome).

The biottes do not melt. They accumulate.

around the pockets (melanosome),

The fusion pockets eventually end up

anastomosing to form ribbons
continue
["chloritoschists","amphibolites","eclogites"]
The marbles: recrystallized carbonates ± other minerals Mg (forsterite,
phlogopite, tremolite, actinolite, talc). Grain variable. Soft rocks (scratchable)
by the steel).

quartzite
 Classification and nomenclature of metamorphic rocks

The classification of metamorphic rocks is more complex than that of rocks.

magmatic or sedimentary, as it is necessary to take into account:

original rock
Chemical and mineralogical compositions
Type of metamorphism
Thermal and/or dynamic factors

Unlike igneous or sedimentary rocks, there is no

reference classification for metamorphic rocks.
the classification is based on the concomitant determination of:
Petrographic facies
Metamorphic sequence
metamorphic face
Petrographic facies: arrangement and nature of the minerals constituting the rock.
Petrographic facies: arrangement and nature of the minerals forming the rock.