N.

MEMORY LOVE________________________________________________ course of

commutation

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHING...........................................................................3
1. TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION.............................................................................................................3
2. NETWORKS AND SWITCHING ..............................................................................................................3
2.1 DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................................4
2.2 TYPES ON NETWORKS
3.3 CONFIGURATION OF SWITCHED NETWORKS.............................................................................5
2.4 Functions general switching
3. STRUCTURE OF A TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK............................................................5
3.1 BASIC FUNCTIONS THE TELEPHONE NETWORK .................................................................5
3.2 ORGANIZATION FROM A TELEPHONE NETWORK.......................................................................6
3.3 ORGANIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TELEPHONE NETWORKS.............................8
3.4 THE TRAFFIC..............................................................................................................................................9
4. CONDUCT OF A SIMPLE COMMUNICATION.......................................................................10
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SWITCHING..........................................................12
1. Switching techniques..........................................................................................12
1.1 SPATIAL COMMUTATION ..........................................................................................................12
1.2 TEMPORAL COMMUTATION ...................................................................................................13
2. The switching modes.................................................................................................14
2.1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
2.2 COMMUTATION DE MESSAGES
2.3 PACKET SWITCHING.....................................................................................................15
3. INTEGRATED DIGITAL NETWORK..................................................................................17
3.1 DIGITAL NETWORK WITH SERVICE INTEGRATION .......................................................17
3.2 Development of ISDN networks
3.3 Operation
3.4 The OSI model and ISDN ........................................................................................................................19
3.5 EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED DIGITAL NETWORKS...............................20

FUNCTIONS AND ORGANIZATION OF A SWITCHING CENTER....................21

FUNCTIONS OF ONE AUTOCOMMUTATOR...............................................................21
1.1 RELATION FUNCTION................................................................................................................22
1.2 CONTROL FUNCTION
1.3 TRANSLATION FUNCTION..........................................................................................................22
1.4 TAXATION FUNCTION...............................................................................................................23
1.5 THE OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS....................................................23
2. ARCHITECTURE OF ELECTRONIC SWITCHING SYSTEMS.........24
2.1 WIRING LOGIC, PROGRAMMED LOGIC............................................................................24
2.2 THE OPERATING SOFTWARE
2.3 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRONIC SWITCHES A
REGISTERED PROGRAMMES..............................................................................................................25
3. The control organs.................................................................................................28
3.1 Functions and constraints of control organs............................................................................28
General Structure OF THE CONTROL UNIT..........................................................29
3. The fundamental constraints ................................. 30
3.4 CONTROL ARCHITECTURE..........................................................................................31
4. THE PHASES OF ESTABLISHING A PHONE CALL..........................38
CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................................42
THE NETWORKS OF CONNECTION........................................................................................42
1. FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY A CONNECTION NETWORK ........................................................42
DIGITAL..................................................................................................................................................42
2. THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF CONNECTION NETWORKS...........................................................42
NUMERICALS..........................................................................................................................................42
2.1 SPATIAL COMMUTATION, TEMPORAL COMMUTATION...............................................42
2.2 THE TIME SWITCH: T.............................................................................................43
2. 3 TIME SWITCH CONTROLLED BY THE OUTPUT.................................................44
2. 4 TEMPORAL SWITCH CONTROLLED BY THE INPUT..................................................45
2. 5 THE SPATIAL SWITCH (or spatial matrix) ................................................................46
.....................................................................................................................................................................47
2. 6 THE DIGITAL SWITCHBOARD..............................................................................................47
3. The synchronization.......................................................................................................................................50
3.1 internal synchronization :........................................................................................................................50

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

3.2 General network synchronization:.....................................................................................................50

CHAPTER 5...........................................................................................................................52
TELEPHONIC SIGNALING.............................................................................52
1. SUBSCRIBER SIGNALING :.......................................................................................52
2. The inter-central signaling: ....................................................................................... 52
2. 1 SIGNAGE SUPPORT :......................................................................................................57
2. 2 SIGNALING ON ASSOCIATED CANAL: CASE .................................................................58
2. 3 SIGNALING ON COMMON TRACK: PRINCIPLE.....................................................................60
2. 4 ADVANTAGES OF COMMON WAY SIGNAGE:..................................................61
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................................63

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE ________________________________________________ course of
commutation

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHING

TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
At the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell, only two
posts can be connected in two rooms of the same dwelling
Consequence: a certain number of posts connected in derivation on the same line
and inability to communicate with a station connected to another line.
The solution was to find a way with which each phone can be
connected or switched (temporarily connecting) with any other
telephone.
One of the solutions was to connect each line with all the others.
If we have six stations, we would need 15 lines, for N subscribers we need
N(N-1)/2 lines. This solution is not practical if N is large.
A practical solution at the time was to have the telephone lines brought in.
toward a center where they will be switched among themselves with the help of an operator, the first
the standard manual was then born
Manual switching:
An operator standing in front of a board answers calls, establishes the
communications, using a cord and releases the connection when the communication
is finished. Each subscriber has a jack and a lamp. The limit of this
the technique was quickly reached.
Manual switching is very slow and expensive.
Automatic switching:
In 1892, STROWGER invented the first rotary switch. This switch is
an electromechanical device controlled by the impulses sent over the line
therefore no more human intervention to establish communications.
In the 1950s, the first stepper rotary systems (also known as ROTARY)
were developed by BELL laboratories.
Disadvantage: noise and slowness (the lifespan is around 100 years).
Automatic crossbar systems were born in the 1960s. They are based on
horizontal and vertical bar selectors hence their name: bar systems
crossed. Connections are established by an intersection between a bar
vertical and another horizontal and are controlled by electromagnets it is about
electromechanical systems. In these systems, we have already been able to make the distinction
between the switching network formed by the set of crossing points
and the control formed solely by electromagnetic relays.
Electronic switching:
Currently, we only find electronic switching systems whose
The control unit is comparable to real-time computers. It is distinguished
also by the nature of their switching network with space technology or
temporary which is the most widespread.
Time technology involves establishing a connection by linking
temporally, the incoming and outgoing MIC circuits.
2. NETWORKS AND SWITCHING

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

2.1 DEFINITION
A network can be defined as a complex set of means.
techniques for transferring a signal corresponding to coded information;
it can be managed by a public or private operator.
The network is therefore composed of a set of transmission paths and means.
necessary to connect them together in order to assign them to users.
The assignment of transmission paths, also known as allocation, can be fixed or
variable depending on the type of service rendered. In the case where the assignment is variable, a
switching operation is necessary.

2.2 TYPES OF NETWORKS

Three types of networks exist: Broadcasting network, collection network, and network
commuted

Name of 1 n>1 n >= 1

sources

Nombre n > 1 1 n >= 1

destinations

Type Fix Fix Variable

of assignment

Type of network Diffusion Collection Commute

source

destination

Table 1: Types of networks

In broadcasting and collecting networks, transmission is by nature

unidirectional.
In a switched network, it can be bidirectional if each user plays to the
time as the role of source and destination.

NOTE: THE NETWORK IS NORMALIZED

A switched network is said to be standardized if its transmission equipment and
Commutations are pooled for the use of a large number of users who
access to this network is through an individual transmission means. This is the case of the network
telephone.
It includes:
Groups of standardized transmission paths equivalent to each other
from the point of view of traffic routing (same origin, same
called beams.
Switching centers or exchanges capable of assigning a line to
each communication.

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Control and management bodies whose services are requested by

any user and assigned to each case as necessary.

3.3 CONFIGURATION OF SWITCHED NETWORKS

The interconnection of several points by a switched network can be achieved
through different topologies, the main ones being:
a) The mesh network: All points are connected pairwise by a beam
direct.
b) The star network: a switching center called a transit center
interconnected between them the bundles that connect it to each of the points.
c) The linear network: a single beam is accessible directly at each
points.
d) The looped network: it is a linear network closed on itself.

a) b) c) d)

2.4 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF SWITCHING

In a telephone network, switching plays a fundamental role in performing
two essential functions:
1- Concentration of traffic from low-activity sources on
common transmission means, by allocating a portion of their capacity to each
source active.
2- Routing information from a source to a destination, according to a
fixed or variable route through the network from one switch to another.

3. STRUCTURE OF A TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK

3.1 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE TELEPHONE NETWORK

The essential function of a telephone network is to connect two
subscriber posts.
The establishment of this relationship is done using the information provided by
the requesting subscriber wants to know the requested number.
The telephone network is responsible for establishing communications.
maintain throughout the conversation with a quality of listening
sufficient while supervising them to detect the reconnection that triggers the
release of the equipment used for communication.

Two main functions arise from this:

Chapter 1
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

1- Interconnection of subscribers: Provision of temporary physical support

allowing the ends to match and transmit signals in the band
vocal 300-3400 Hz.
2- Signaling: Numbering, exchange of information between centers for
the establishment, the breakdown and the supervision of communications.

Other functions are added such as network exploitation (traffic measurement,

reconfiguration in case of failure.... ).
In traditional networks, these functions are combined to form the
telephone network.
Nowadays, specialized sub-networks are starting to emerge (network for the
supervision and management of transmission centers, network for signaling.....)

3.2 ORGANIZATION OF A TELEPHONE NETWORK

a) Technical organization
The telephone network is a switched conversational network transmitting the
He deserts day and night the entire national territory and is interconnected.
with the global network (ground connection via cable or microwave links, underwater cables
marines, satellites...)
The major functions performed at the level of a telecommunications network are
are distributed among:

The transport and distribution that allow for the connection of subscribers
The switching that directs and concentrates traffic.
The transmission that carries traffic between exchanges via
transmission arteries made up of circuit bundles.

P.C hair
or cable from SR Commutation Transmission
connection
Distribution Transport
Installation
subscriber
Distributor
Subscriber line network General
Figure 1: CONFIGURATION TECHNIQUE OF A TELEPHONE NETWORK

The subscriber line network (RLA) is also called the access network and includes
other types of access such as xDSL access (ADSL), WLL, ISDN access....
Switches direct communications in the direction of
the requested subscriber while introducing a concentration of traffic in order to make it profitable
at best the arteries (support) of transmission and the intelligent organs of the
order.
Indeed, a switch is a multi-directional diverter controlled by a
complex logic. It is able to record the requested number, to
determine the direction to take, to reserve a clear path, to monitor the
communication throughout its duration and to charge the requesting subscriber.

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

There are two main classes of switches: subscriber switches and

transit switch.
The first is the one to which subscriber lines lead, the second connects.
only circuits.

Different types of communications established by a switch

Local communication
2- Outgoing communication
3- Incoming communication
4- Transit communication

b) Geographical organization
- Urban networks: They are characterized by a high telephone density, a traffic
for high subscriber and a short distance between the subscriber and the switch.
Rural networks: Characterized by a low telephone density, a traffic of
low intensity subscriber and a significant distance between the subscriber and the central.
Intercity networks: These are the ones that connect local networks to each other. In
in these networks, we no longer consider distribution and subscribers but rather the
commutation and transmission.
c) Administrative organization
This organization results from the geographical division of the territory and from
technical considerations (transmission, taxation...)
The basic concepts are:
Local zone: geographical area where all subscribers are connected to a
same autocommutator called local center (LC).
When the center is able to route all the calls it receives to
multiple directions, it is called a center for transport autonomy (CAA).
A transport autonomy zone is therefore a set of local zones that do not
do not overlap and are included in the same tax area (ZAA).
Urban area: area with a high population density in which a sub
The network was created to route calls in this area.
The local centers of an urban area are CAA and are called centers.
urban (high-capacity switches)
Intercity networks: these are long-distance connections that provide
intercity circuits connecting autonomous zones to each other
transportation either directly or generally through transit centers

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation



CL

ZAA
ZAA
CAA

CT

CT

CT

CT

See you

CN
Local center
TO CAA: Autonomous Routing Center

CT: Transit Center

ZAA: Zone of Autonomous Transport

See you
Urban zone

Nodal Center

Urban Center

Figure 2: NETWORK ORGANIZATION

3.3 ORGANIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF NETWORKS

TELEPHONIC
A telephone network is organized around a certain number of plans.
fundamentals.
a) the numbering plan: it defines how each of the subscribers or the
services is designated by a number that allows it to be identified without
ambiguity.
Closed plan: Subscriber numbers have a fixed length
The entire territory is considered in its entirety, no zoning code.
Open plan: the territory is divided into zones. A subscriber number has a
variable length and consists of an area code followed by an interurban code
tracking by the subscriber's directory number.
According to the ITU-T, an international subscriber number will consist of at most 12
numbers in traditional networks and 15 numbers in digital networks
integrated.

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Example: for Tunisia 216 71 xxx xxx

b) the routing plan: It determines the physical and logical path between
two extreme points of the network.
The routing of a communication from a departure center to an arrival center
must follow the routing rules described in this plan.
(First choice beam, second choice beam, overflow beam, the
The principle is to choose the shortest available path.

c) The blocking plan: it defines the quality of service in the network, it is - to -

the quality of traffic flow measured by the probability of call loss on
the beams and the likelihood of blocking in switching centers.

d) The transmission plan: it ensures transmission quality.

sufficient for conversations by setting the tolerated weaknesses on the lines
expressed in dB (decibel = 10 log U1/ U2or P1/ P2).
Le CCITT appelé aussi UIT-T a normalisé les valeurs des affaiblissements et
acceptable distortion for the international network.

e) The taxation plan: defines the cost of communications.

Four essential parameters influence the pricing of communications:
1- Area where the subscriber resides.
2- The distance that separates the two subscribers.
3- The duration of the communication.
4- the time and the day of the establishment of the communication.

3.4 TRAFFIC
A line is not occupied permanently, its activity can be measured by the
the proportion of time she is busy is what we call her traffic.
Example:
A line is occupied successively for 3min, 5min, then 4min during a
hour.
The duration of occupation of this line is 12 minutes.
The traffic intensity would be 12/60 = 0.2 Erlang.
The unit of measurement for traffic is the Erlang.
The activity of a telephone line follows a random process that is characterized by
a law of arrival.
Some values:
Traffic per residential subscriber = 0.1 to 0.15ER
Traffic per business subscriber = 0.15 to 0.3ER
Taxiphone = 0.4 ER
PABX = 0.6 to 0.8 ER
Traffic per circuit = 0.7 to 0.8 ER

Chapter 1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

4. CONDUCTING A SIMPLE COMMUNICATION

Subscriber applicant Central A Central B Subscriber requested

Detachment Food you

post

Connection of a
recorder

Emission
Invitation tone of invitation à
to number transmit

Numbering
recording of
numbers

The recorder
consult a
translator

The recorder
command to a
finder marker
a free circuit to
the central B

Taking a circuit

Send to B of
call signal Connection of a
recorder
Acknowledgment signal
reception Towards A

Sending the figures

Saved numbers
in the recorder

Chapter 1
0
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ class of
commutation

The recorder
consult a
translator :
Terminal call

Test order
the state of the line
requested

Line found free Hung up the phone

sending tone of
Call back return call
tone sending
of call The bell rings

Stop the signal Dropout

Transmission call /sending of a
of the signal of the signal of
dropout dropout

Progress of
counter of
applicant

Communication

The phases of establishing a call, also called the selection phases, can
to summarize as:
1 - Preselection: feeding and connection to a recorder.
2 - Numbering.
3 - The analysis: figures, routing, taxation......
4 - Signaling: exchange of signals between switching centers.
5 - The end of selection.
6 - Call phase and callback phase.
7 - The answer.
8 - The conversation.
9- The liberation.

Chapter 1
1
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

CHAPTER 2

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SWITCHING

THE SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

1.1 SPATIAL COMMUTATION
Linking an input to an output means establishing a connection that allows transmission.
of electrical signals in such a way as to recover at the output the signal injected at the input
(word or data).
The easiest way to establish this connection is to bring two into contact.
metal conductors.
The point of contact between the two conductors is called the connection point. A
set of connection points allowing to establish connections between m lines
An input with n output lines is called a selector.

Open connection point

Incoming lines
Connection point closed

Outgoing lines
Figure 3: PRINCIPLE OF A SELECTOR

The assembly of a certain number of selectors makes it possible to form a matrix of

connection.

A connection point can be made by the contacts of a relay, a switch

cross bar or a mini selector or by a transistor using its properties: blocking
by passing.
In spatial switching, each communication follows a well-defined path in
Space, a connection point conveys a communication at a time.
Spatial switching allows for continuous physical connection.
between an incoming line and an outgoing line using connection points. The
the established path is dedicated to a single communication.
Route searching involves identifying the connection points to be established.
work without interference with other established connections.
A mixing is done to ensure the widest accessibility.
In a well-designed connection (or switching) network, there is a large
number of possible routes between two extreme points.
Spatial electronic switching differs from electromechanical switching by
the nature of the components used for the creation of connection points
Outgoing lines
(Lines
Chapter 2
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Incoming lines
(Subscriber lines)

Concentration Expansion
Brewing or
distribution

(Junction circuits) (Junction circuits)

Figure 4: CONNECTIONS MADE BY A SWITCHING CENTER

1.2 TIME SWITCHING

Transmission systems with pulse modulation and coding
constitutes the basic element for time-division switching systems in
which it is necessary to transform the electrical signal emitted by the subscriber (300
-3400 Hz in a digital signal.
In MIC systems, each channel has a position in a frame of
period of 125 microseconds.
The information is not continuous but is presented in the form of samples at a
frequency of 8 KHz.
The coded sample is a word of 8 binary elements representing the value of
the instantaneous amplitude of the voice signal or byte of data.
The standardized European MIC multiplex by CCITT consists of 32 channels at 64
Kbits/Second of throughput (throughput on a 64 x8=2.048 Mbits per second connection).
Track 0 is used for synchronization, track 16 is used to transmit signaling.
corresponding to the 30 speech channels.
Each channel is allocated a time interval (TI) of 3.9 microseconds. The
The online code used is HDB3.
The incoming and outgoing lines of a switchboard are then connected to a
multiplex connections MIC with 30 channels.
Time switching involves interconnecting two paths that appear in
time-division multiplexing.
It is about transferring to a given time position of an outgoing multiplex.
given, the information conveyed by the position of the corresponding incoming multiplex
to the given incoming line.

Input sequence Output sequence

Switch to
A4 A3 A2 A1 distribution A1 A3 A4 A2
temporal

X4 X3 X2 X1 Y4 Y3 Y2 Y1
Outgoing circuits

Chapter 2
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Incoming circuits
Figure 5: PRINCIPLE OF TIME SWITCHING

NOTES:
Spatial switching adapts to lines carrying modulation
analog
Time switching adapts to the lines appearing on multiplexes.
transmission MIC. The environment must be digitized beforehand using
analog-to-digital converters.
The main advantage of time switching is to allow the creation of
integrated digital networks using the same basic 64 Kbits support
second for the transmission of speech or data encoded in MIC from which
the evolution towards the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
2. THE SWITCHING MODES
2.1 THE CIRCUIT SWITCHING
This technique was used for data transmission before
the emergence of specialized networks for data.
A physical circuit is established between the source and the destination. This circuit
belongs only to the two entities that communicate

Node of
Source commutation

Circuit

Destination
Figure 6: PRINCIPLE OF CIRCUIT SWITCHING
The circuit must be established before any information can be transmitted. It lasts
until one of the two subscribers interrupts the communication. If both
Correspondents no longer have data to transmit for a certain period of time.
the liaison remains unused.
Circuit switching only involves junction circuits and the
connection can be spatial or temporal.
Communication bycommutationof circuits is based on negotiation and
Construction of a unique exclusive path from machine A to machine B, during
the establishment of a dialogue sequence between these two machines. The path thus
created lasts until the end of the dialogue sequence that it implies. This
a path is called a circuit, hence the name of this communication method.
The circuit switching technique, widely used in
Telecommunication has for a long time been carried out using exchanges.
telephone lines establishing physical connections during the construction of

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

circuits, first thanks to the small hands of the telephone employees who
established connections between pairs of connectors on an electrical panel,
then in an automated way. Currently, the trend is shifting towards thecircuits
virtualsbuilt on networks atpacket switching.

2.2 MESSAGE COMMUTATION

A message is a sequence of logical information forming a non-discrete set.
logically guilty for both the sender and the recipient, by
example: a complete file, a line typed on a terminal, a disk sector
(example of mailbox).
Message switching is a process of routing messages in a
telecommunication network without prior establishment of a circuit end-to-end
about, by reception, putting inmemoryand retransmission of complete messages from
close to close to their destination.

A message switching network appears as follows:

Message

NODE 1

NODE 2

NODE 3

Figure 7: PRINCIPLE OF MESSAGE TRANSFER

It is a mesh network of switching nodes, the message is sent from node to node.
node until the recipient. It cannot be sent to the next node until it has not
was received completely and correctly in the previous node.
Intermediate nodes need memory for storage.
messages as long as they are not properly received.
A transmission management system allows for the acknowledgment of messages.
correctly received and requests the retransmission of erroneous messages: Therefore, it is necessary to
a flow control system in the nodes.
One of the difficulties is the correct transmission of very long messages. For a rate
of 10 errors-5bit (1 erroneous bit out of 105on the telephone network) a message from
A length of 100,000 bytes has only a 0.0003 chance of arriving correctly.
Communication is unidirectional and receiving a message requires a
long duration

2.3 PACKET SWITCHING

With the rapid evolution of user needs in the field of
data transmission and to accelerate the transmission speed, the networks of
packet switching was born. The packet is a sequence of binary information that does not
cannot exceed a pre-set value length. Thus the messages of
users are divided into packets that commonly have a maximum length of
on the order of 1000 to 2000 bits.

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Packet switching is a process ofroutingin which the

messages are divided into packets, each packet containing the addresses
necessary for hisrouting. Dans les nodesfrom the network, these packets are received in a
Queue file and retransmitted, after analyzing the addresses, on the transmission path
appropriate; upon arrival, the messages are reconstructed from the received packets.
Since a packet occupies a channel only during its transmission, the channel is
then available for the transmission of other packets belonging either to the same
message, or to other messages.
The essential differentiating point between thecommutationof packages and the
circuit switchingis the resource management/reservation scheme at
level of intermediate transport units.
Circuit switching requires the reservation of resources
communication throughout the entire conversation and over a complete route between
the two machines involved in the dialogue. On the contrary, in the case of the
packet switching, resource reservation only concerns one packet
given that the link connecting two routing units on which the packet
considered is currently in transit, and only during the duration of
transit of this package between the two considered delivery units. An advantage
the evident difference between packet switching and circuit switching is therefore a
much more rational use of communication resources: the
resources are only reserved during their use.
The packets are sent independently of each other and the connections
between switching nodes that take them into account to emit them to and from
measurement of their arrivals at the node.
Packets of several messages can thus be multiplexed
temporally on the same link. (fig 8)
Le rôle des nœuds de commutation est d’aiguiller les paquets vers la bonne sortie ce
which can be provided by a routing table.

Message p
p3 p2 p1
KNOT q3 r2 p3 q2 r1 p2 q1 p1
Message q DE
q3 q2 q1
COMMUTATION
Message r OF PACKAGES
r3
Figure 8: TIME-BASED MULTIPLEXING OF PACKETS ON A LINK

By its principle, packet switching is similar to message switching.

with however the following differences:
Packets are standardized format message parts.
including control bits designed to protect the packet against errors
transmission.
The segmentation of the message into packets is done by the network and not by
the user.

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

The memorization times of packets in the queues at the

network nodes are a few ms, they give users the impression of a
bidirectional real-time transmission.

commutation of Commutation of Commutation from

circuits packages messages
Retard constant and short variable and means Variable and long
0-1ms 10ms....s s.....min
Low to medium usage high Medium
lines
Protection against the charges covered by depending on the cases
errors users the network
Mode yes yes No
bidirectional
Change
possible to format no yes Yes
Of flow no yes Yes
No memory needed weak Grand
on the way

TABLE 2: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE MODES OF

COMMUTATION

3. INTEGRATED DIGITAL NETWORK

The digitization of the telephone network has allowed it to become multi
usage and to transport information related to voice, data, texts
and the images. The two main aspects of digital systems are: The
binary representation of information, and time division multiplexing, present
interests for the exchange:
The binary form allows for easy interconnection of an input to a
any exit from the central (A simple conjunction)

order of number number of

connection entrance exit
Figure 9: EXAMPLE OF CONNECTION INSTRUCTION
The time-division multiplexing structure allows multiple connections to be established.
through the same connection point (used then for time-sharing) which
leads to a significant reduction in material size and complexity
logic of central units and increase of their functionalities.
Moreover, the digital form is better suited for memorization.
temporary

3.1 DIGITAL NETWORK WITH SERVICE INTEGRATION

Economic objectives on one hand and the growth of needs on the other
two trends in modern telecommunications networks:
Integration of transmission and switching through the use of the form
digital information (integration n in terms of their respective functions
which always remain distinct

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Creation of public computer networks mainly for the transmission of

professional data traffic.
These parallel trends raise the possibility of a common digital network.
data transmission and telephony called digital network with integration
of RNIS services.
3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF RNIS NETWORKS
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has defined the technology
RNIS as a network providing digital connectivity from one end
end to end with a wide range of services. Two important features
ISDN networks distinguish them from traditional telephone networks:
Connections are digital from one end to the other;
•RNIS defines a set of user/network interface protocols
standard. De cette façon, tous les équipements RNIS utilisent les mêmes connexions
physiques and the same signaling protocols to access the services.

3.3 OPERATION
Service integration refers to the use of a part or all of
of the telecommunications network to transmit information relating to
services of different kinds such as: Telephony, The
teleinformatics, telex, fax, videophone, videoconferencing........
The RNIS offers the integration of supports and services and, for that, it relies
on digitization and is developing within international standards.
The basic access of 144 Kbit/s consists of two channels at 64 Kbit/s and one channel at 16 Kbit/s.
(2B+D). The B channels allow, for example, to make phone calls while sending a
fast fax. Channel D, for its part, designs the signals used to
the establishment of communication and all service information; it can
also transport low-speed information. There is also a primary access that
contains 30 B channels and one D channel (which can be used for PABX) (figure 10
and 11)

Figure 10: Diagram of a basic access

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Figure 11: Diagram of a primary access

3.4 THE OSI MODEL AND ISDN

APPLICATION

PRESENTATION

SESSION

TRANSPORT

NETWORK Protocol D: packet level

LIAISON LAPD: flow control connection, identity, and format of

frames, frame verification, error detection

PHYSIQUE Transmission capacity for 2B+D or 30B+D

Frame synchronization.
Access to channel D (signaling)
Maintenance

LAPD: link access procedure on D channel

The signaling protocol D contains the necessary messages for
establishment, release and access to supplementary services (Audio,
video, bitrate…)
In RNIS, the switching used is packet type and all access elements to
RNIS is specified by international standards.

Example of package X 25:

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Bit 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
GFI=general format LCGN = Logical Channel
OCTET 1
identifier (package mod 8 or Group Number
128) GFI=0001 mod 8 or
PACKET HEADER
Logical Channel Number (LCN) OCTET2

Packet Type example: Call Request, Call Accepted, Data, OCTET3

Receive Ready, Receive not Ready, Reject...

USER Data, ADDRESSES, Facilities (Depending on Packet

type)

3.5 EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED DIGITAL NETWORKS

The RNIS BROADBAND: B-ISDN: 2 exponent 24 channels = 167777216
simultaneous channels with signaling in the band; hence the evolution towards the
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) information transfer mode
The basic organization for standardization is the ITU-T (since 1989) and ATM.
FORUM (formed in 1991 and works in collaboration with ANSI, ITU ...)
ATM is a connection-oriented transfer mode that uses cell format for
to do.
The cell is a fixed-size packet: 53 bytes (the choice of this size is for
allow transmission over long distances without needing
of echo canceller). Thus the delays will be predictable.

The cell format is as follows:

48 octets for PAYLOAD 5 octets for

HEADER
ATM connections are virtual channels: Either PVC (permanent virtual
channel) : connection established by a manager, or SVC (switched virtual
Channel): connection established by a signaling system.

Adaptation Layer

ATM layer

Physical Layer

The levels of the ATM protocol

Chapter 2
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

CHAPTER 3

FUNCTIONS AND ORGANIZATION OF A CENTER

Commutation

1. FUNCTIONS OF A PRIVATE SWITCHBOARD

A private branch exchange enables the establishment of a temporary connection between two
lines: one is calling (or incoming) the other is called (or outgoing).
These lines can be either subscriber lines or junction circuits.
connecting one exchange to another.
A single line can be called or calling depending on the circumstances.
A private branch exchange can connect a variable number of lines (from a few
dozens to a few thousand). The complexity and importance of the private branch exchange
variant with its capacity.
A private branch exchange must perform two essential functions:
A hardware function to allow the physical connection of the line
requester to that of the requested.
An intelligent function that allows controlling the equipment such as:
receiving the numbers, analyzing them to determine the called line.
As a result, a private branch exchange includes two important parts:
A connection network through which a temporary link is established
between the incoming line and the outgoing line. The technique used for the connection is
based on the principle of time switching and time division multiplexing
temporal.
2-A control unit that executes the processing operations of
information received in the central and takes care of the reception and emission of
informations vers les autres centraux (fonction de relation avec l’extérieur appelée
also signage).
The control unit also specifies to the connection network the lines to be interconnected.
as well as the instant of the start of the connection and that of its end (command function).
Other functions are performed by the control organs such as
management of the system and the supervision and monitoring of equipment and
established links.

Commutation

Order

Figure 13: Block diagram of a switching system

The control organs can be a duplicated unique system for the

operational safety or a set of identical equipment distributing
the calls to be processed and the different functions to be executed.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

1.1 RELATION FUNCTION

A private branch exchange reacts based on the requests made to it.
distances either by subscribers (through their posts) or from others
autocommutators.
The establishment of communications thus requires the exchange of information.
for which the switch must have communication functions with the outside.
are the functions of relation.
The set of procedures that govern these functions is known as
of telephone signaling.
The main information exchanged in telephony are:
the information relating to the status of the connections involved in the establishment
of a communication.
the numbering information.
the end-of-selection information indicating the status of the requested line
or the reason for the failure of the appeal.
supervision information (response from the request, disconnection of
requested.....)

1.2 CONTROL FUNCTION

It includes the ordering of switching and signaling equipment.
It consists of acquiring information through periodic exploration of
test points at the levels of switching equipment (binary words) for
detect changes.
This function allows for displaying or writing on the points.
operation by assigning different logical states to the switching elements.

1.3 TRANSLATION FUNCTION

The main information used for routing a call is the
requested subscriber number.
However, this number cannot be used as it is.
Practically, it corresponds to specific information necessary for the
search for the exchange switch serving the requested line and looking for
this line in this last one.
This matching operation is the translation.
a- Translation start:
In telephone networks, the first digits of the subscriber number
characterize the exchange to which the line is connected.
The purpose of the translation start, which is carried out by the switch of
The attachment of the applicant is to find the destination of the call and the taxation that it
must be applied to communication.
This would be the objective of the analysis of the figures. The starting translation depends on the plan of the
numbering, the routing plan and the taxation plan.
b- Arrival translation:
Its purpose is to verify that the received indicator corresponds to one of the indicators served.
locally and to determine the route that the communication must follow to
to reach the requested subscriber with the verification of their status and category.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ class of
commutation

1.4 TAXATION FUNCTION

The services provided by the telecommunications network must be compensated.
In normal operation, it is the requesting subscriber who bears the cost of
communication.
The automatic switches must allow for the preparation of the data necessary for the
billing for the communications they establish.
The price of a communication can be proportional to its duration measured from
the moment the requested subscriber answered.
The cost of the unit of conversation time depends on the type of communication and is
expressed as a multiple of a pricing unit called basic tax.
The rates may depend on the time at which the communication takes place. During the day
is divided into a certain number of time slots.
Two methods of taxation are used: impulse meter taxation.
periods and detailed billing (ticket taxation).

1.5 THE OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS

Exploitation
Daily operations such as the commissioning of a subscriber line,
commissioning of a circuit, modification of subscriber category or modification
data from the translation is part of the management of a switch.
Ces opérations sont exécutées sous forme d’échange d’informations entre le
personnel from the switching center with the latter through terminals
computing for digital private branch exchanges, and using a programming language for
communication Man - machine (commands and outputs).
The automatic switchboard must therefore manage the dialogue procedure and translate it into form
data modification.
Other operational activities are necessary such as traffic measurement for
network planning.
2. Maintenance:
Detecting operational anomalies, locating them, and trying to repair them are
the necessary operations to maintain a satisfactory operating state of
the switching system.
Electronic systems are equipped with built-in maintenance functions.
The proper functioning of the system or some of its subsystems can be
supervised by means of monitoring functions that are part of the unit of
command that triggers them automatically.
The intervention of man is reduced to the substitution of printed circuits.
presumed offenders.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

2. ARCHITECTURE OF SWITCHING SYSTEMS

ELECTRONICS
The increase in the response speed of electronic components has,
significantly, modified the design of switching systems.
The spectacular decrease in the cost of electronic components using
Large-scale integration (LSI or VLSI) has significantly reduced the cost.
of electronic switching systems, these two factors were at the origin of the fact that
rethink the structure of switching

2.1 HARDWIRED LOGIC, PROGRAMMED LOGIC

A telephone exchange has the function of analyzing events.
outdoor emissions from different sources, to interpret them as requests for
determined communication and deduce the actions to be taken in order to do so
satisfy.
The decisions to be made are perfectly deterministic and can be described.
by means of a succession of elementary choices in a rolling program
conditional.
In electromechanical switching, this program has been materialized by the
combinatorial structures of relay contacts, the conditions of a permanent nature
such as the translation data is carried out in the form of wiring.
Transitional conditions such as remembering a requested number
is done by holding certain combinations of contacts. This is referred to as
technique by wired logic.
Electronic switching has enabled the introduction of systems to
stored programs (Stored Program Controlled SPC) in which the
the program is explained in a calculator. Thus, we benefit from all the advances
brought to computers: It is programmed logic.
However, it should be noted that switching calculators do not have the
universal structure of other calculators because they were designed for a
determinate switching system.
The concept of recorded programs fundamentally characterizes
electronic switching.
The programs of a telephony computer are written in a language
evolved and then compiled into a series of instructions in machine code, the final result of
the compilation is stored in a memory accessible by the computer and is
called operational software
The recorded programs have increased the number of functions.
hence the emergence of additional services, the signaling on common channel,
centralization of maintenance and conversational human-machine interaction
(machine language)

CONSEQUENCES ON THE STRUCTURE OF AUTOMATIC SWITCHES

The control organs are replaced by a computer equipped with a
great processing power, smart functions are centralized at the level
From software, this centralization poses difficulties, including the risk of failure.
complete.
Different structures are used to try to address these difficulties.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

2.2 THE OPERATING SOFTWARE

Switching programs are the result of team work involving
both communicators and computer scientists.
To allow for its maintenance, the program must be designed in a way
understandable.
The software is intended to evolve over time: the program must therefore be
modifiable all changes must not affect the unchanged parts:
It must be modular.
The environment of a central office is constantly changing: the program must
being expandable.
Regardless of the circumstances, the software must lead to a situation that avoids
the damage to the central: liable software.
Operating system

20%
Maintenance
40%
15%
Call handling
25%

Exploitation

Figure 14: ORGANIZATION OF OPERATIONAL SOFTWARE

a. OPERATING SYSTEM:
Monitor program: Machine time management, interface with peripherals,
resource allocation and defense programs (response to failures, restart
of the system and data backup and protection.

b. HANDLING OF CALLS:
Essential task that occupies most of the computing time and does not
represents only a small part of the overall instructions.

c- EXPLOITATION:
Programs for managing subscriber lines, circuits, and equipment.
data on translation and taxation as well as traffic monitoring.
d. MAINTENANCE:
Preventive maintenance: Testing of lines and circuits, periodic testing of
material.
Corrective maintenance: Fault localization process.

2.3 STRUCTURE GENERAL DES AUTOCOMMUTATORS

RECORDED PROGRAMMABLE ELECTRONICS

Electronic systems are characterized by digitization at the level of

connection network and command by recorded programs.
Despite the diversity of systems, a macroscopic architecture characterizes
the electronic switches. (See figure 12)

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

DESCRIPTION
Subscriber and circuit junction
Network access junction
C: Internal control junctions
Signal control junction
C2: Network connection control junction
D: Human-machine relationship junctions
1- Individual line equipment allowing the connection of either posts
telephone lines are circuits
2- The connection network having its own control organs
3- the bodies for collecting and distributing information, intermediaries between the
line equipment and control, handle signaling track by track.
4- the order formed mainly of processors and memories in some
various organizations.
5- Computer-type peripherals for communication with the
operating and maintenance personnel.

NOTE
We must distinguish between function and organ: A function can
concerns several organs; one organ can perform several functions

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ class of
commutation

A B

Equipment
Terminals or individual lines
circuits

2
NETWORK
DE
CONNECTION
1
Logic of
PERIPHERALS
marking
Telephonic
Exploit Distrubution
COLLECT AND
rate goal scorer
DISTRIBUTION
3
INFORMATION
Signaling
way by way
Channels
semaphores
Signaling
by channel
semaphore

C1 C2
BUS OF
TRANSMISSION

C
4
Order

Memories

}
D

Devices of the relationship

Devices
Man - Machine
computer science
5

Figure 14: GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AUTOMATIC SWITCHES

ELECTRONICS

Chapitre3_____________________________________________________________________________27
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

3. THE CONTROL DEVICES

3.1 FUNCTIONS AND CONSTRAINTS OF CONTROL ORGANS

The control devices are all the equipment that execute the
most intelligent functions. (the software)
By nature, command functions rely on the existence of a function.
of memorization that must contain at every moment the state of all elements
materials or logic of the system.
The control devices must perform two types of functions:
a-The switching functions: They rely on the acquisition of
the information through the test points by the event explorers on the
subscriber lines and the junctions, and the distribution of signals through the
distributors and the points of operation on subscriber lines and junctions.
Between these two functions are placed other internal analysis functions.
signals received such as translation, routing, and route connection in
the connection network.
All these functions are subject to real-time constraints.
A high degree of parallelism is required since the number of ongoing calls
treatment can reach several hundred.
The power of the switching control devices is measured by the number
of calls that they are able to handle during a unit of time (BHCA).
b-The operation and maintenance function: these are the functions
which allow to manage (Add, modify, delete) the physical items or
logic, to monitor the operation of the exchange, to detect and
locate equipment failures.
These functions have different characteristics from those of the
commutation (Interaction with the operator, importance of real-time lower)
The introduction of electronics at the level of switching systems has had
the following consequences:
1- The clear separation between the control organs and those of the
commutation which allowed to create an interface between the order and the
commutation. This interface is responsible for speed adaptation (response time
The connection components take a few ms while that of the command does.
is in the order of ns therefore a ratio of 1/6)
2- Sharing time between calls: since the operating time of the
the order is reduced compared to the switching equipment, there is possibility
processing multiple calls at the same time.
3- Improvement of operation and maintenance without increased cost
from the central by the possibility of using the processing capacity of a computer
both for switching and for operation and maintenance.

The implementation of switching, operating, and

maintenance may involve the use of wired or programmed automata.
The use of wired connections tends to disappear.
The programmed automaton is universal.
As a result, the structure of the control organs is distinguished in 3 levels:
A first programmed micro level consisting of acquisition organs and
of distribution

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

A second programmed level that performs the remaining functions of

call handling.
A third level of scheduled operation and maintenance.
These three levels represent the internal logical organization of an SPC system.
In the most recent systems, micro-programmed automata are used or
microprocessors for acquisition and distribution.

2.2 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE CONTROL UNIT

To meet the various constraints, the general structure of the unit of
The order is organized into three levels (Fig 13)

Telephonedevices

Specificity
Volume of material
Importanceoftime

Atthlevelofcommutation

Complexity
logic

Level
exploitation
andmaintenance

Figure 15: GENERAL LOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CONTROL UNIT

Telephone devices: Junctions, subscriber equipment, receiver

You are a code transmitter, connection network... These are all the equipment that
performing simple and repetitive functions (acquisition and distribution).
The switching level ensures processing functions
the information
The level of operation and maintenance

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Telephone devices Telephone devices

calculator
calculator
exploitation
and of
maintenance
commutation
other automatic switch another automatic switch
calculator of
commutation calculator
of exploitation of exploitation
and maintenance
and maintenance

b) three-level physical structure

a) two-level physical structures

Figure 16: PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF CONTROL ELEMENTS

NOTE:
The most common configuration is the two-level physical one.
When the second level is made up of a single computer, the structure of
the system is called monarchical
When the second level is made up of several calculators, the structure
is oligarchic.

3.3 THE FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRAINTS

The real-time processing power: that is to say, the number of calls
insured by the computer at the same time.
The service continuity: the order must be operational
continuously (24H / 24H).
Ease of operation:
Operation and maintenance function.
Possibility of evolution over time.
These constraints have consequences on the operational software and on the structure.
the equipment.

CONSEQUENCES ON THE OPERATIONAL SOFTWARE

Organization of programs in several levels of priority example: the
call handling programs such as number analysis, research of
Paths are more prioritized than those of operation and maintenance.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

Defense software introduction: testing programs (supervision) and

automatic localization of errors to address the constraints of permanence of
service.
Optimization of the necessary memory volumes to reduce costs

CONSEQUENCES ON THE MATERIAL

Material redundancy
Specific architecture
* Development of specific calculators in the following areas:
Instruction codes: to increase access speed to
program sequences that consume a lot of machine time
Maintainability devices to reduce repair time of
panne
Technological to reduce equipment costs and increase
performance

3.4 COMMAND ARCHITECTURE

Many architectural models exist. The criteria for distinguishing them
different models are:
Centralization or distribution of functions
The use of two or n calculators
The organization in one or more levels
A. CENTRALIZATION AND DISTRIBUTION
A.1 CENTRALIZATION
m machines (processes), p functions to be performed (represented by p programs),
managed resources (hardware such as telephone devices or software like
work zone, data of the organs) the principle is illustrated by figure 15.

Advantages:
Total knowledge of the system state
Accessibility to all the resources enjoyed by each computer
Any modification or improvement to the system often concerns the software.

Disadvantages
Lack of modularity: you have to install all the computing power from the very beginning.
The cost of the equipment is not proportional to the traffic processed.
Monolithic structure of the software that makes the system fragile and cumbersome to manage.
just one incorrect bit is enough for no call to be processed

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

1
R 2
R R
r R
e
s
o
u
r
c

1
M 2
M M
m M
a
c
h
i
n
e
s

P
1 P
2 P
p P
r
o
g
a
m
s

Functionaldiagramofacentralizedorderingstructure

Each machine has direct access to each of the resources.

and execute all the programs

Figure 17: Structure of a centralized control system

A-2 DISTRIBUTION

1R 2R secruoseR
rR

a b c

1M 2M m
Ma
Mchines

i j k

P1 P2 smargor
pPP

Machineexchangeliaison

figure18: FUNCTIONAL SCHEMA OF A CONTROL STRUCTURE

REPARTEE
Each machine has access, in a given state of the system, only to a subset
a, b,..., c resources and/or i, j, r programs, that is to say functions.

Static distribution and dynamic distribution:

-Static: the functions or resources processed by a machine are defined
once and for all
-Dynamic: Each processor can potentially handle all the
functions and access all resources based on the state of the system.
Advantages:
Modularity of the system
Reduced cost
Disadvantages:

Chapter 3_____________________________________________________________________________32
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ class of
commutation

Need to establish an information exchange mechanism between the

calculators for coordination
The parallelism to ensure
B. STRUCTURE OF TWO COMPUTERS
For the reliability of the command, a redundancy is required at the level of
calculators.
The simplest solution would then be to duplicate the machine that is functionally
sufficient for traffic management.
Three modes of duplication exist:
Micro-synchronism
Traffic sharing
Active / reserve

1- The micro synchronism.

The principle of micro-synchronism consists of physically coupling the two
computers (A and B) so that they execute the same instruction at the same moment and
compare the result before moving on to the next instruction. Any divergence
(mismatch) leads to the deactivation of the faulty calculator.

Structure
Environment

A C B

Figure 19: STRUCTURE OF MICRO SYNCHRONISM

Description :

Active liaison A, B: central units of computers

Liaison inactive M: memory of computers
C : comparator
The two machines must have the same data at all times.
and simultaneously receive information from the environment
telephone or computer. Conversely, only one of the computers sends the
orders (we cannot have two chiefs!)

1.2 States of the computers

One of the processors is executive or active, the other is on standby or waiting.
The sub-states of the waiting computer are: waiting/functioning, waiting/stopped,
waiting/separated.

Chapter 3
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

1.3 Reactions to mistakes

In case of an error detected by the comparator, the suspected faulty processor is
out of service, the two computers are decoupled and the execution of a program
The test to locate the defective processor begins. This program has a
execution time that must not exceed 20 milliseconds for calls to not
may not be lost.
There are permanent mistakes and others temporary

1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

Perfect protection against processor failures
The relative simplicity of the software
Disadvantage: The protection is less effective for software faults that
can have the effect of resetting the system.

2. Traffic sharing
The principle of traffic sharing consists of randomly distributing the calls that
appear on one or the other of the machines which, once the call is taken into account,
the end-to-end treaty.
Consequence: the two machines share the resources and
coordinates to access it (Mutual exclusion system for example).

2.1 Structure
Environment

LIC
A B

EX
MA MB

Figure 20: TRAFFIC SHARING STRUCTURE

A, B: central units of computers LIC: inter-computer liaison
M: memory of the computers exclusion device

2 States
The two calculators are online.
In case of a processor failure, the sub-states it takes are those of the micro.
synchronism.
2. 3 Advantages and disadvantages
Best resistance to software faults
Possibility of operating with different software in each
calculator
The processing power of calls can be doubled.

Disadvantage:

Chapter 3
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

More complex software due to coordination processes between the

calculators.

2.4 Reaction to mistakes

In case of an error in a calculator, it is taken out of service and then reset.
The other calculator takes all the load (new calls and those established).

3. Active / Reserve
One processor handles the traffic, the other is completely decoupled in terms of hardware.
and software and will only go online in case of failure of the first one.
This mode of duplication is only used in two cases:
The calculator that switches from reserve to active is able to restore the status of
system (free subscribers, busy subscribers, engaged junctions, route established in the
connection network.......
The computers use the same memory.

Environment

A B

M
Figure 21: ASSET STRUCTURE / RESERVE

This mode is not commonly used for the control of a switching system.

Chapter 3
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

C. STRUCTURE AND CALCULATORS

Objective:
Establish a powerful command unit
Simplify software problems by distributing functions among
multiple processors.
Achieve modularity of the command

C.1 : RÉPARTITION DES FONCTIONS

The operating and maintenance functions have different characteristics than
those for handling calls (the latter require more availability than the
first
C. 2: ARCHITECTURE OF A STATICS SHARING SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
LD
Telephone devices
LEX

.........
MR1 MRn
The C Mq MR2
TR TX

LIP

CEM
LEX: exploration liaison Mq: marker
Distribution Liaison control organ
LIP: inter-processor liaison CEM: operations and management center
MR: Multi recorder maintenance
taxi driver Translator

Figure 22: EXAMPLES OF DISTRIBUTED STRUCTURE SYSTEM

D- COMPARISON ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURES

Availability: this parameter reflects the service's permanence to ensure a
level of reliability excellent, it is represented by the following report
Average time between errors
D=
Average time between faults + average repair time

Traffic: the load of a switching processor is measured by its rate.

of occupation T= a + b n

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ class of
commutation

a = fixed charge depending on the configuration of the switchboard (traffic at

video)
b = machine time needed to process a call
n = number of calls per unit of time

E. STRUCTURE OF SWITCHING COMPUTERS

Les calculateurs utilisés en commutation électronique pour le traitement

calls are developed specifically for this use

1- Common characteristics with universal calculators

Central unit, memory, exchange unit, peripheral interface unit.
Same instruction code structure and same addressing principle (direct - indirect)
- indexed......)
Same principle of memory protection (parity bit)
Interruption system for prioritizing tasks

2- Special characteristics of switching calculators

- Specific instruction codes for real-time processes (instruction on
a bit to perform a test, arithmetic and logical instructions on a slice of
word ......)
High capacity addressing memory that can reach over one million words at
32 binary elements
Cache or virtual memory does not exist.
Software protection mechanism: watchdog function or key and lock
Peripheral input/output: telecommunication and computing
Availability and maintenance: fault localization software

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

4. THE PHASES OF ESTABLISHING A PHONE CALL

REMINDER:
The switchboards are the nodes of the network and telephone.
ensuring temporary connections between:
Two lines of subscribers connected to the same switch.
A subscriber line and a junction (circuit) to another center
commutation (autonomous routing center).
To simplify the network structure and its management, some private automatic branch exchanges
Serving low-density local areas may not be autonomous centers.
routing (CAA), all outgoing calls are then routed to a single
bundle of junctions to a routing switch with autonomous forwarding (network to
star structure

A junction from another switchboard and a subscriber line.

Two connections coming from two distinct centers.
A universal PBX is one that is capable of handling the four types of
liaison under - indicated
A self-switch capable of handling the fourth type is a transit center.
A transit switch does not perform concentration but switching.
towards the different output junctions.

1. THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF A PHONE CALL

The operations performed by a telephone exchange for call processing
Telephone calls are spread over time in stages called selection phases of a
Call. These phases depend on the type of call being handled and the mode of relationship used between
the network's private automatic branches.

2. THE FIRST STAGE OF HANDLING A CALL:

THE PRESELECTION
The receipt of a call request requires execution by the exchange.
of a certain number of operations that will prepare it to receive the subscriber's number
requested. All of these operations constitute the preselection.
The preselection differs depending on whether the call originates from a subscriber or a junction.

2.1 APPEAL CASE FROM A SUBSCRIBER

In this case, the preselection operations are those carried out by the automatic switch.
until it delivers the invitation to send to the requesting subscriber:
Subscriber disconnection resulting in the presentation of a loop
resistant on the line.
Detection of this disconnection by a specific device for each line: equipment
subscriber (detection is done using routine exploration).
Examination of the subscriber's identity as well as their category (keyboard or to
dial, this allows to determine in what form the transmission of the numbers will take place).
Connection of the number reception equipment.
Sending the invitation to transmit
The examination of the caller's identity can deduce several cases: Example
subscriber who is not entitled to make calls.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

2.2 APPEAL CASE FROM A JOINING

In this case, the pre-selection is the phase starting from the reception of a signal.
call engagement until the moment the switchboard is ready to receive the
numbering regarding the appeal request.
This phase depends on the type of signaling used between exchanges.
In case of lane-by-lane signaling, the equipment used for reception of
signaling are the auxiliary signaling receptors.
A private branch exchange can serve junctions using systems of
different signaling. At each junction, we will connect the signaling receiver.
Adequate A set of receptors is made available to a set of junctions,
The connection between the two devices is made through the connection network.
In semaphore channel signaling, the call signal and that of the first digit
are confused because the central is always ready to issue and receive.

3. THE SECOND PHASE OF A CALL: RECORDING OF THE

NUMBERING AND SELECTION
In this phase, the switch receives and records the signals from
numbering that will be used to choose a route to the requested subscriber.
This last operation is selection.
The reception of the numbering is controlled by a timing system.
If the call is outgoing, the connection is made at the end of the reception of the
numbering or if the type of signaling allows as soon as a sufficient number of
numbers were received (sufficient to determine on which channel the call should be processed).
If the call is to a local subscriber (terminal call), the end of reception of
figures start the search for the called line.
If the call is outgoing, the selection of a junction to the called switch.
requires the choice of a junction among those available towards this
autocommutator.

4. THE THIRD PHASE OF A CALL: THE SIGNALING

This phase consists of transmitting the call request to a remote center and
the information related to its completion. (It exists only for an outgoing call).
The first signal sent is that of the call that starts the phase of
pre-selection in the arrival center.
Depending on the status of the requested line, an end-of-selection signal is sent to
the starting hub.
Examples of selection end signals:
Received complete number, line free, the call may or may not be subject to taxation.
- Complete number, line busy.
Complete number, line inaccessible.
If the line is free, the call signal to the requested party begins.
low-frequency call on the line.
If the line is busy or inaccessible, the release of the entire used route is
ordered.

5. THE FOURTH PHASE: SUPERVISION AND TAXATION

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

This phase starts at the drop of the request and involves monitoring the status of.
the connection to allow the linking of the two subscribers or the release of the
path established and to implement the taxation of communication.

Chapter 3
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ course of
commutation

IN SUMMARY:

The actual telephone network is a graph.

The final configuration of the network depends on traffic, technological constraints.

and economic criteria.

The load of a private branch exchange:

1- Elementary but complex functions: connecting circuits to each other,

concentration and mixing. The complexity arises from the large number of sources and
of destinations and thus of possible configurations.

2- Advanced function requiring great intelligence: analysis of the

numbering, taxation, route finding, error detection functions that
manipulate a large amount of data.

3- Intermediate function, routine, concerning a large number of

points: exploration of subscriber lines, events, etc...

The connection network handles task 1: weak intelligence:

concentration and mixing.

The concentration is assigned to subscriber concentrators also called units.

of subscriber connection (URA), The connection is affected at the heart of the chain.

One or more calculators for task 2.

Devices for tasks 3.

Chapter 3
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

CHAPTER 4
THE CONNECTION NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION
The analog telephone signal is converted into digital form by the
pulse code modulation PCM.
Digital switches interconnect coded paths in MIC without performing
of conversion.


 Unit of Circuit (Mic) at 2Mbits/s
Network of
connection
connection
subscribers
 Commutation

Devices
Figure 23: CONNECTION
Calculators NETWORK
input/outputSITUATION
The connection network ensures the patching so that any input can
reach any exit. Order
It should be noted that the connection to be made is of the four-wire type.

FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY A CONNECTIVITY NETWORK

DIGITAL

The main function is the establishment and maintenance of telephone connections.

bidirectional with a speed of 64 kbits/s.
Broadcast connection function between source paths for tones and messages
registered and the lines assigned to subscribers and circuits.
Other types of connection such as Y connection (one input to two outputs)
to perform certain maintenance functions.
Synchronization of incoming connections with the local clock of the switch.
(synchronization function)
Contribution to providing a good quality of service defined by a blocking rate
very low internet (less than 10)-3and operational safety.

2. THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF CONNECTION NETWORKS

DIGITAL
2.1 SPATIAL COMMUTATION, TEMPORAL COMMUTATION
Spatial switching involves physically establishing a path between the line
incoming and the outgoing line.
This path is obtained through a two-state connection point. It allows passage.
signals exchanged between the source and the destination during the entire duration of the
communication.

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

Time or digital switching involves taking from a MIC connection.

incoming a pulse train to reinject it on an outgoing link.
This requires that during the time that elapses between these two time intervals, the
incoming impulses are stored in memory. This process is repeated 8000 times
per second.
Temporal switching allows to change the temporal position of signals
transported by an incoming MIC line by having them stay for a while
suitable in a buffer

Digital connection networks rely on both techniques mentioned.

let it be:
- A temporal position change: operation of type T that performs
the desired phase shift by staying in a buffer memory for a time
suitable the signals transmitted by the incoming line.
A spatial switching between synchronized multiplexes: operation of
type S which is obtained by the opening of fast logic gates allowing the transfer
the signals from the incoming line to the outgoing multiplex.
These logic gates create the connection points and are controlled at a pace.
equal to that of the internal multiplexes.
A temporal connection network can combine these two operations in several ways.
successive floors:
TS, TST, TSST ......
Command memories are used to establish or interrupt a connection through
the network.
MIC0
 MIC0 VT1/30
(VT0/ 31) MIC1
MIC1 VTi
 memory
network of
tampon
connection

MICn
VTj
MICx

MICn

Figure 24: PRINCIPLE OF THE TIME SWITCH

2. 2 THE TIME SWITCH: T

It consists of a buffer memory called speech memory in which a word

Eight binary elements are associated with each telephone line.
The entries in this memory are made cyclically, each
The sample is therefore stored for a period of 125 microseconds.
The entire contents of the memory must be read in 125 microseconds.
To perform this operation, we decompose the elementary time interval of 3.9.
microseconds in n+1 under intervals noted T0to Tn.
T0 is used to perform n simultaneous writes in the buffer. The others
will be allocated to reading (T1at exit 1 that is to say a lane i of MIC1 exiting Tkest
pointed towards the multiplex k and so on).

Chapter 4
 [Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

The connection is characterized by the read address in the buffer which

corresponds to a digital channel in reception. This address is provided by a
memory called control memory in which each word is associated with a channel
outgoing, contains the address of the connected incoming route.
This memory is read cyclically: the inscriptions are made by the
processors of the central command by the marking devices.

LNE Transformation series / memory Transformation LNS1

1 parallel tampon parallel / series
32 words at 8th grade

LNE memory
Series transformation / tampon Transformation LNSn
n
parallel 32 words at 8th. parallel / series
Junctions
Junctions outgoing
starters Writing Lecture t t
1n
Memory
of
order
n times
Base of 32 words
weather
Figure 25: SCHEMA OF THE TEMPORAL SWITCH

The maximum capacity is about 500 channels (actually 512), which allows for: 16 links
MIC.
At a moment t, 16 ITs belonging to the 16 MIC paths are presented.
used is highly integrated to allow for the reduction of internal blocking.
Memorization occurs in 125 microseconds using parallel series transformation.
The switching is done by extracting the time intervals in a different order.
of the one in which they were recorded. This is done with the assistance of memory of
C.S. order

2. 3 TIME SWITCH CONTROLLED BY THE OUTPUT

intervals of
arrival times 0 7
1
2

sample at 8th.b

511
Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

counter 0
1
0............511 SS 2
7 counter

0............511
511

CS
Figure 26: PRINCIPLE OF THE TIME SWITCH CONTROLLED BY THE
EXIT
It is ordered by the output as each word in the command memory is associated with
a determined outgoing time interval. (In the IT2 example, the input is connected to
IT7 exiting).

2.4 TIME SWITCH CONTROLLED BY THE INPUT

In this case, CS indicates how the registration should be done in SS.
( Sur l’exemple dela figure 25: IT5 entrant est connecté à IT2 sortant )

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

intervals of 0
1 intervals of
arrival times departure time
2

sample at 8th.b

0 511 counter
1
2 SS 0..............511
5

511

Figure 27: PRINCIPLE OF THE TIME SWITCH CONTROLLED BY

THE ENTRY

These two types of switches are based on the use of RAM memory.

EXERCISE:
SS

CS
1
3
2
0

X = X3X2X1X0is a framework that appears on the arrival side of SS

How will X present itself at the exit of SS in the case where ss is commanded by the
exit and in the case where it is commanded by the entry

2. 5 THE SPATIAL SWITCH (or spatial matrix)

It is a crossover table formed by logic gates that allows for
commute the time intervals in space to provide total accessibility
between incoming and outgoing digital connections.
The activation of the crossover point lasts for the duration of the internal time interval.

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

The content of the internal time interval is the number of the horizontal.
CS is divided into several parts, one for each vertical. The switch is used.
in time-sharing.

Horizontal 0
Horizontal 1
Horizontal2

vertical 0
vertical 1
vertical 2
IT Interns
0
Counter 1
2 1 CSC
Figure 28: PRINCIPLE
3 OF SPATIAL SWITCH

In this case, the crossing point 1 of the vertical 0 is activated during the internal IT 2.

EXERCISE:
Fill in the CSC boxes to have the following connections:

H0 - V0, H1 - V1, during the internal time interval 0

H0 – V1, H1 – V0, during the internal time interval 1
H0 - V1, H1 - V0, during the internal time interval 2
H0 - V0, H0 - V1, during the internal time interval 3

2. 6 THE DIGITAL SWITCH

A digital switch consists of time switches and
spatial switches. Example: a T S T switch

Chapter 4_______________________________________________________________________________47
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

0 0
1 1
A0 2 2
3 0 0 3 B1
1 1
SSA0 2 2 SSB1
3 3

Time intervals
internal
0
0 CSA0 0
1 CSB1
1 2
SSA0 1
2 2
A1 3
3 0 0 3 B0
1 1
CSC0 CSC1
2 2
3 3
SSA1 SSB0
SSA0

CSA1 CSB0

Figure 27: EXAMPLE OF TST STRUCTURE CONNECTION NETWORK

EXERCISE:
Search for all information about the path used by the different
communications based on the content of the various reports.

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

2.7 THE COUNTER-PHASE METHOD

Telephone connections are bidirectional, so it requires two paths.
through the digital switch.
The time switch actually combines the two directions of departure and arrival to form
a time switch module (Time switch module in English: TSM).
In a TSM, SSA and SSB are connected in such a way that word 0 of SSA and word 0
the SSB belong to the same communication, word 1 of SSA and word 1 of SSB
to another and so on.
This would facilitate the connection of MIC systems to the switch
digital that consists of connecting the arrival time intervals of a system
MIC at SSA and the departure time intervals to SSB.
We will ensure that for a communication, the two internal time intervals
implemented will be shifted by half the number of time intervals in CSA
et CSB. C’est ce qu’on appelle la Méthode de contre phase.
Finding a path in one direction in the switch guarantees the return.
number of time intervals later on two.

Thanks to the out-of-phase method, one memory is used for extraction.

SSA and registration in SSB.
This way, we gain a memory card in the time switch and we ensure the
return path since when choosing the starting IT, the arrival IT is known at the same time
weather.
If CSA contains n numbered boxes from 0 to n-1, CSB also contains N numbered boxes.
from n/2 to n-1 then from 0 to n/2 -1
Example:
0 0 2
1 2 3
2 1 0
3 3 1
CSA/B

Remarks:
The memorization of an IT on a memory cell of a time switch requires
125/512= 244 ns (half the duration of a binary element)

Chapter 4_______________________________________________________________________________49
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __switching course

3. SYNCHRONIZATION
The subsets of digital connection network must be synchronized.
to avoid losing information. The generation and distribution function of
Clock signals are therefore vital for the switch.
The malfunctioning of the synchronization system has always been on
consequence on service quality.

3.1 INTERNAL SYNCHRONIZATION:

It must be applied to the entire speech chain: units of

Subscriber connection and network connection.
Generally, the different elements are synchronized with each other in frequency.
and in phase.
Clock signals are distributed by a central time base that must not
never be down or disrupted.
A subset of the connection network generally requires a certain
number of periodic signals to operate. These signals are delivered locally
by counters. The signals distributed by the central clock are used to synchronize
these meters.
Several internal synchronization methods exist:
•• Majority distribution: 3 sources operating in micro
synchronism.
Principle: each source selects the right signal using a majority vote.
•• Decentralized distribution: each source has its own
synchronized oscillator from a central clock.

3.2 GENERAL NETWORK SYNCHRONIZATION:

It is essential to synchronize the entire network to provide a

satisfactory quality of services for non-telephone services.
It is commonly accepted not to exceed a shift every 70 days.
crossed autocommutator.
Several techniques can be used to synchronize a network:
•• Functioning of plesiocoryne: the network is actually asynchronous.
but the accuracy of all local clocks is very high.
•• Master-slave synchronization: a main clock
commands the synchronization of all nodes.
In general, the synchronization signal is extracted from the incident digital multiplex.
(Centralized solution is very sensitive).
•• Mutual synchronization: no node plays a privileged role.
Each node is aware of the instantaneous frequency of the other clocks and uses it.
used to correct one's own (correction after a calculation based on the variation of
phase shift between the clocks).

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE________________________________________________ __exchange course

EXERCISE:
Real connection network:
Establish the bidirectional connection between a circuit A connected to IT 30 of MIC 3 of
TSM 1 and the B circuit connected to the IT 17 of the MIC 5 of TSM1, The internal IT Departure is the
No 111. Use the phase cancellation method.

Chapter 4
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

CHAPTER 5
TELEPHONE SIGNALING

INTRODUCTION
In a telephone context, signaling means the transfer from one point to another.
Information and instructions regarding the establishment and supervision of a call
telephone.
Traditionally, signage is divided into two types:
Subscriber signaling: the one exchanged between the subscriber terminal and
the central to which it is connected.
Inter-central signaling: that which is exchanged between the central offices.

1. SUBSCRIBER SIGNALING:
To initiate a call, the subscriber lifts the receiver of their telephone.
action constitutes a signal to the central to which the subscriber line is connected, indicating
that he wishes to make a call (communication).
As soon as an appropriate reception equipment is connected to the calling line,
the central sends an invitation tone to transmit to the calling subscriber, this one
can then begin the encoding of the subscriber number he wishes to connect to.
The requesting subscriber then receives the status of the call from the central: return tone
calling tone if the requested subscriber is free, busy tone if the latter is busy,
congestion tone if the call cannot be routed due to congestion
in the network, or other specialized tones or recorded messages.
The information is transmitted on the line that connects the subscriber's terminal to the
central and which is in most cases a physical connection with two wires.

2. THE INTER-CENTER SIGNALING:

The telephone signaling also includes the transfer of information between the
central. Two types of signals exist in this case: line signals and signals
of the recorder.
1. The signals from recorders are used during the establishment phase of a
Call. We distinguish between forward recorder signals and backward ones.

Chapter 5_______________________________________________________________________________52
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

Exemple de signalisation d'abonné

Applicant Requested

 
Dropping out

Invitation to transfer

Numbers

call return signal calling signal

Response from the requester

Conversation

Reconnection
Reattachment

Examplesoffundamentalinter-centersignals

Applicant CentralA CentralB Requested

 Signalforpickup

Acknowledgmentofreceipt

Requestnumber

Responsetotherequest

Conversation

liberation

Releasefromcustody

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ Switching course

The forward signals go from the subscriber's central office to the one
from the requested subscriber; the signals backwards go in the opposite direction.
We find examples of forward signals:
The requested subscriber number.
Subscriber request category.
In the rear direction, you can find the following signals:
Confirmation that the arrival center is ready to receive the figures of the number.
asked.
Information on the end of selection: message to disconnect the recorder,
establish the connection and provide the status of the requested subscriber line.
Taxation information: information needed to establish taxation
of communication.
The large volume of information exchanged by the recorder signaling as well as the
the required speed for establishing a call has enabled the development of
several signaling systems.
The choice of using one system or another depends on ease and cost.
from its adaptation to the existing transmission system.
The old analog systems are mentioned on the left side of the figure.
the most recent are on the right.
The R2 system of the CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee)
recently called by UIT - T) is among the most recent; it is set to
national and international use. It is a controlled system: the signal towards
before it is permanently issued until the receipt of an acknowledgment signal (in
behind) of the central terminal.
R2 is a combination frequency signaling system requiring a transmitter.
the code and a code receiver for the exchange of information; it consists of
mainly in the combination of numbers that form the requested number and
their respective acknowledgments of receipt.

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

Recording signal systems

DC or a
DC 2 frequencies Multifrequency
AC frequency

Impetus Impulse Pulsed Assurance

decadic DC/AC coded

Before
Inverse

Siemens Rotary AGF inst loop CCITT CCITT CCITT MF SO- MFC CCITT
BPO code code 4 5 R1 -COTEL LME R2
( USA) ( France)

Overview of recorder signaling systems

Figure 30: RECORDING SYSTEM SIGNALING

( DC : Direct current, AC : Alternating current , LME : L M Ericsson)

Frequency (Hz)

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

number of Before 1380 1500 1620 1740 1860 1980

signal Back 1140 1020 900 780 660 540
1 x x
2 x x
3 x x
4 x x
5 x x
6 x x
7 x x
8 x x
9 x x
10 x x
11 x x
12 x x
13 x x
14 x x
15 x x

Figure 31: FREQUENCY TABLE OF CODES USED FROM CCITT R2

2. Line signaling is used for the supervision of the front line,
during and after the communication. We can mention: the line pickup signal, the
signal of release and that of the release of custody.

Code
State of the line Before Back
af bf ab bb
Repos 1 0 1 0
Prize 0 0 1 0
Acknowledgment of receipt 0 0 1 1
Response from the requester 0 0 0 1
Rear release 0 0 1 1
Liberation before 1 0 1 1
or
Logout / rest 1 0 1 0
Blocked 1 0 1 1

Figure 32: LINE SIGNALING SYSTEMS

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

The line signaling equipment is usually separate from the functions of

recorder signaling.
The digital R2 system is an example of a signaling system used
for line signals. Two channels are used in each direction for each
speech path: a andf b forward
f and a and b backwards.
b b
In the common track signaling system, the signaling uses a
another path than that of speech. The medium of the signaling itself constitutes
a network.

2.1 SIGNAGE SUPPORT:

Different transmission media can be used for transportation of the
signaling.
Three main types exist:
1) Physical circuit: circuit where there is no transformation of speech frequencies
occurs; example: two-wire connection with frequency or time multiplexing
(FDM or TDM).
2) Non-physical circuit: Circuit where speech is transmitted at higher frequencies.
high using FDM, or transferred in digital form TDM.
3) Signaling network: Represents a new technology for transfer
of signals. In this case, the routing of signals is independent of
the transmission of speech.
Apart from the technical aspect (two center-backs need to understand each other!), the subscribers
requiring certain needs from a signaling perspective:
Reliability of information transfer (Without matching errors).
Speed of establishing the call.
No disruption due to signage on the line.

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

2.2 SIGNAGE ON ASSOCIATED CHANNEL: CASE

Circuits of
Connectors conversation Connectors
Network Network
of of

Connection Connection
Sender Issuer
Receiver Receiver
of the code of the code

Unit of
unit of
order
Order

Autocommutator A Autocommutator B

Figure 33: SIGNALING PRINCIPLE ON ASSOCIATED CHANNEL

In this case, as has already been mentioned, the signaling and speech borrow the
same path in the network. At the end of each circuit, there is a junction
(line signaling) while common organs, code transmitters and receivers,
can be connected and thus associated with a specific circuit during the phase
establishment of a call.
Different modes of this type of signaling exist:
a) Signal transmission by direct current: Signals are transmitted in the form of
of impulses by changing polarities and resistance of the line used. This
the variant is based on the use of relays and electrical contacts associated with them
partners. It applies to local traffic circuits.
b) Signaling through a combination of frequencies or tones: For the lines
long distance, frequency multiplexing-based connections are widely
used.
A distinction is made according to the frequency band used:
Signaling in the speech band (in-band): The signals vary
in the band 300 Hz - 3400 Hz; example 2400 Hz (recorder signals).
Out-of-band signaling: the signals
use frequencies higher than those of speech, for example 3825 Hz (signals
of line).

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

R S
Equipment Equipment
MUX MUX
of of
S R
signals signals
- station station

S = Sending (Emission) R = receiving ( Réception )

Also called RON and TRON
MUX = multiplex

Figure 34: ANALOG SUPPORT DESIGNALISATION ON CHANNEL

ASSOCIATE
The system is based on constant tones

c) Digital system:
For the connections using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), zeros and ones
must be transmitted without worrying about the information to be conveyed.
The signaling also consists of zeros and ones; the MIC equipment has already
prepared the ground for the signage.
Indeed, as is already known, in the first-order MIC (30 / 32 channels),
A frame is composed of 32 channels or time intervals (TI) of which 30 are used.
to convey speech, one for synchronization (IT0) and one for signaling
(IT16).

Synchronization IT16→Signaling

0 1 2 15 16 17 31

Speech channels Speech channels

16 - 30
1 - 15

FIG 35: DIGITAL SUPPORT FOR SIGNAGE ON ASSOCIATED CHANNEL

Time interval 16 contains 8 bits like all the other intervals.

All the signage of the 30 speaking lanes is carried by the IT 16, the 8 bits do not
are surely not sufficient for the transfer of all signals: a multi-frame
composed of 16 frames (from 0 to 15) is used. The IT 16 is then shared so that
that each speech channel can use 4 bits for signaling.

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

The IT 16 of frame 0 is used for multi-frame synchronization and its acknowledgment.

of reception.
In the IT 16 of the following frames, we find the signaling of the track or IT and
n IT n+15.
Example: In the IT16 of frame 1, we find the signaling of channel 1 and 16.
The one from frame 2 will contain the signaling of channel 2 and 17 and so on.
With 4 bits, 16 different signals can be obtained; but, in reality, only 15 are.
used since the combination 0000 is reserved for synchronization.
Regardless of the type of transmission used between exchanges: Analog or
digital, the recorder's signaling is always transmitted over the channel of the
words. These signals are obviously not exchanged during communication. what
means that the IT16 only contains line signaling.

EXAMPLES OF SIGNALING SYSTEMS ON ASSOCIATED CHANNEL:

a)1VF: One voice frequency (decadic impulse).
b) 2VF: Two voice frequency (CCITT number 4).
c) MFP: Multifrequency pulsed (CCITT number 5, R1)
d) MFC: Multifrequency compelled (CCITT R2, MFC - LM ERICSON ...)
As their respective names indicate, they are all based on the combination
of frequencies. They all have constraints: slowness, limited information capacity, etc.
Since the 1960s, when program-controlled exchanges were recorded
program controlled: SPC) were introduced into the telephone network, it was evident
that a new signaling system concept could offer several advantages
compared to traditional systems.
In this new system, fast data links between processors of
Central SPCs are used to transport all the signaling and leave to the circuits
of communication only the transfer of speech.
This new type of signaling is known as track signaling.
common channel signaling (CCS).

2.3 SIGNAGE ON COMMON ROAD: PRINCIPLE

In this case, the signaling of many circuits can be handled by a number
limited fast signaling data links.
The signaling is done in both directions (forward and backward) using a channel.
for each direction.
The signaling information to be transferred is grouped in a signal unit (packet
of data).
In addition to the signaling information itself, we need the identification of
speech circuit to which this information belongs, the address information and
information for error control.

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

SPC central offices and signaling links thus form a logical network of
separate signaling for 'packet switching'.

circuits of
conversation
Network
Network
of from
Connection
Connection

Liaison of
transmission
Unit of Terminal of Terminal of Unit of
data signaling signaling
Order Order

Autocommutateur A Autocommutator B
Figure 36: PRINCIPLE OF SIGNALING ON COMMON TRACK

Signaling exchanges are ensured, in the form of messages, by a link of

Common data transmission to all circuits of the bundle. None
junction type equipment is no longer necessary for signaling at the end of
each circuit. On the other hand, a terminal manages the message exchange procedure to
the end of the data transmission link.
Two standards recommended by the CCITT exist for signaling over the line.
municipality
The first is the CCITT number 6 produced in 1968 designed for traffic
international on analog lines.
The second is CCITT number 7 specified in 1979/80, it is the system of
the most modern signaling.
It was specified for digital networks where the high transmission rate of 64 Kilo
bits per second, can be exploited. However, it can be used on lines
analogues.
2. 4 ADVANTAGES OF SIGNALING ON COMMON ROADS:
In signaling on common tracks also called semaphore channel signaling, it
There is no distinction between line signals and recorder signals.
It also has many advantages. We can mention:
Economic: fewer signaling equipment are required compared to the
traditional systems.

Chapter 5
[Link] LOVE__________________________________________________ switching course

High-performance: each signaling link can manage signaling of

several thousand simultaneous calls.
Quick: the call setup time is reduced to less than one second in the
most cases.
Reliable: by using alternative signaling routes, the network of
signalisation is safe.
Flexible: the system can contain many more signals and can be used
for purposes other than telephony.

Chapter 5
[Link] AMOR__________________________________________________ switching course

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Traffic flow in switches.

Collection technique and scientific telecommunications, Masson 85.

[FANTAUZZI 90] GIUSEPPE. Digital switching control architectures, Artech House

90.
[NOLL MICHAEL. Introduction to telephones and telephone systems, Artech
House.

[GRINSEC 80] Grinsec. La commutation électronique, Eyrollles 1980 (2 tomes).

[MAIMAN 1994] MAXIME. Télécoms et réseaux, Masson 1994.

FRENCH TELECOMMUNICATIONS GENERAL DIRECTORATE 1982

French telecommunications.

RIGAULT 1998 CLAUDE. Principle of digital switching, from the telephone to

multimedia, Hermes 1998.

[HATIRA AMOR 1995] NAJET. Study and dimensioning of a network of

signaling in SS7. Final thesis ESPTT 1995.

Chapter 5