UNIT 5 - IMPORTANT QUESTION/ ANSWERS
Q1. What is code generation ? Discuss the design issues of code generation.
Ans. 1. Code generation is the final phase of compiler.
2. It takes as input the Intermediate Representation (IR) produced by the front end of
the compiler, along with relevant symbol table information, and produces as output a
semantically equivalent target program as shown in Fig.
Design issues of code generator are:
1. Input to the code generator:
The input to the code generator is the intermediate representation of the
source program produced by the front end, along with information in the
symbol table.
IR includes three address representations and graphical representations.
2. The target program:
The instruction set architecture of the target machine has a significant impact
on the difficulty of constructing a good code generator that produces high
quality machine code.
The most common target machine architectures are RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computer), CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer), and
stack based.
3. Instruction selection:
The code generator must map the IR program into a code sequence that can
be executed by the target machine.
If the IR is high level, the code generator may translate each IR statement
into a sequence of machine instructions using code templates.
4. Register allocation:
A key problem in code generation is deciding what values to hold in which
registers on the target machine do not have enough space to hold all values.
Values that are not held in registers need to reside in memory. Instructions
involving register operands are invariably shorter and faster than those
involving operands in memory, so efficient utilization of registers is particularly
important.
The use of registers is often subdivided into two subproblems:
Register allocation, during which we select the set of variables that will
reside in registers at each point in the program.
Register assignment, during which we pick the specific register that a
variable will reside in.
5. Evaluation order:
The order in which computations are performed can affect the efficiency of
the target code.
Some computation orders require fewer registers to hold intermediate results
than others.
Q2. Write an algorithm to partition a sequence of three address statements into
basic blocks.
Ans. The algorithm for construction of basic block is as follows:
Input: A sequence of three address statements.
Output: A list of basic blocks with each three address statements in exactly one block.
Method:
1. We first determine the set of leaders, the first statement of basic block. The
rules we use are given as:
a. The first statement is a leader.
b. Any statement which is the target of a conditional or unconditional goto is a
leader.
c. Any statement which immediately follows a conditional goto is a leader.
2. For each leader construct its basic block, which consist of leader and all
statements up to the end of program but not including the next leader. Any
statement not placed in the block can never be executed and may now be
removed, if desired.
Q3. What is code optimization ? Discuss the classification of code optimization.
Ans. Code optimization:
1. The code optimization refers to the techniques used by the compiler to
improve the execution efficiency of generated object code.
2. It involves a complex analysis of intermediate code and performs various
transformations but every optimizing transformation must also preserve the
semantic of the program.
Classification of code optimization:
1. Machine dependent: The machine dependent optimization can be achieved
using following criteria:
Allocation of sufficient number of resources to improve the execution
efficiency of the program.
Using immediate instructions wherever necessary.
The use of intermix instructions along with the data increases the speed of
execution.
2. Machine independent: The machine independent optimization can be
achieved using following criteria:
The code should be analyzed completely and use alternative equivalent
sequence of source code that will produce a minimum amount of target code.
Use appropriate program structure in order to improve the efficiency of target
code.
By eliminating the unreachable code from the source program.
Move two or more identical computations at one place and make use of the
result instead of each time computing the expressions.
Q4. Write a short note on direct acyclic graph.
Ans. DAG:
1. The abbreviation DAG stands for Directed Acyclic Graph.
2. DAGs are useful data structure for implementing transformations on basic
blocks.
3. A DAG gives picture of how the value computed by each statement in the
basic block is used in the subsequent statement of the block.
4. Constructing a DAG from three address statement is a good way of
determining common sub-expressions within a block.
5. A DAG for á basic block has following properties:
a. Leaves are labeled by unique identifier, either a variable name or
constants.
b. Interior nodes are labeled by an operator symbol.
c. Nodes are also optionally given a sequence of identifiers for labels.
6. Since, DAG is used in code optimization and output of code optimization is
machine code and machine code uses register to store variable used in the
source program.
Advantage of DAG:
1. We automatically detect common sub-expressions with the DAG help of
algorithm.
2. We can determine which identifiers have their values used in the block.
3. We can determine which statements used outside compute values which
could be the block.
Q5. How DAG is different from syntax tree ?
Ans. DAG v/s Syntax tree:
1. Directed Acyclic Graph is a data structure for transformations on the basic
block. While syntax tree is an abstract representation of the language
constructs.
2. DAG is constructed from three address statement while syntax tree is
constructed directly from the expression.
Applications of DAG:
1. Scheduling: Directed acyclic graphs representations of partial orderings have
many applications in scheduling for systems of tasks.
2. Data processing networks: A directed acyclic graph may be used too
represent a network of processing elements.
3. Data compression: Directed acyclic graphs may also be used as a compact
representation of a collection of sequences. In this type of application, one finds
a DAG in which the paths form the sequences.
4. It helps in finding statement that can be recorded.
Q6. What is data flow analysis ? How does it use in code optimization?
Ans. 1. Data flow analysis is a process in which the values are computed using data
flow properties.
2. In this analysis, the analysis is made on data flow.
3. A program’s Control Flow Graph (CFG) is used to determine those parts of a
program to which a particular value assigned to a variable might propagate.
4. A simple way to perform data flow analysis of programs is to set up data flow
equations for each node of the control flow graph and solve them by repeatedly
calculating the output from the input locally at each node until the whole system
stabilizes, i.e., it reaches a fix point.
5. Reaching definitions is used by data flow analysis in code optimization.
Q7. What is a DAG ? Write the algorithm for constructing DAG for basic block?
Ans. A DAG for basic block is a directed acyclic graph with the following labels on
nodes:
1. The leaves of graph are labeled by unique identifier and that identifier can be
variable names or constants.
2. Interior nodes of the graph is labeled by an operator symbol.
3. Nodes are also given a sequence of identifiers for labels to store the computed
value.
4. DAGs are a type of data structure. It is used to implement transformations on
basic blocks.
5. DAG provides a good way to determine the common sub-expression.
6. It gives a picture representation of how the value computed by the statement is
used in subsequent statements.
Algorithm for construction of DAG
For constructing a DAG FOR BASIC BLOCK , the input and output are as follows.
Input- The input will contain a basic block.
Output- The output will contain the following information-
Each node of the graph represents a label.
o If the node is a leaf node, the label represents an identifier.
o If the node is a non-leaf node, the label represents an operator.
Each node contains a list of attached identifiers to hold the computed value.
There are three possible scenarios on which we can construct a DAG.
1. Case 1: x = y op z
where x, y, and z are operands and op is an operator.
2. Case 2: x = op y
where x and y are operands and op is an operator.
3. Case 3: x = y
where x and y are operands.
