COMPREHENSIVE

PHYSICS FORMULA SHEET

CBSE Class 11 & 12 + JEE Main + JEE
Advanced (2026)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Universal Constants & Physical Quantities
2. Mechanics: Kinematics
3. Mechanics: Laws of Motion & Friction
4. Mechanics: Work, Energy & Power
5. Mechanics: Circular Motion
6. Mechanics: Rotational Motion & Angular Momentum
7. Mechanics: Gravitation
8. Properties of Matter & Fluid Mechanics
9. Oscillations & Simple Harmonic Motion
10. Mechanical Waves & Sound
11. Thermodynamics & Kinetic Theory
12. Electrostatics
13. Electric Current & Circuits
14. Magnetism & Magnetic Effects
15. Electromagnetic Induction
16. Alternating Current (AC)
17. Ray Optics & Lenses
18. Wave Optics
19. Modern Physics: Atoms & Nuclei
20. Semiconductors & Communication Electronics

1. UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS &

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Constant Symbol Value Unit
Speed of Light c 3 × 10⁸ m/s
 Constant Symbol Value Unit
Gravitational Constant G 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²
Planck's Constant h 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
Elementary Charge e 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
Avogadro's Number Nₐ 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹
Boltzmann Constant kᵦ 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K
Gas Constant R 8.314 J/(mol·K)
Permittivity (Vacuum) ε₀ 8.85 × 10⁻¹² F/m
Permeability (Vacuum) μ₀ 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m
Coulomb's Constant k 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²
g (acceleration) g 9.8 m/s²
Rydberg Constant Rₕ 1.097 × 10⁷ m⁻¹
Stefan-Boltzmann Const. σ 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/(m²·K⁴)

2. MECHANICS: KINEMATICS
Basic Kinematic Equations (Constant Acceleration)
v = u + at

Final velocity after time t with constant acceleration a

Base formula for all kinematic equations

s = ut + (1/2)at²

Displacement s in time t with constant acceleration

Most commonly used in numerical problems
s is displacement (vector), not distance

v² = u² + 2as

Relation between velocities, acceleration, displacement (without time)

Used when time is unknown

sₙ = u + (a/2)(2n - 1)

Displacement covered in nth second

For motion from t = n-1 to t = n seconds

Projectile Motion
Time of Flight: T = (2u sinθ) / g

Vertical motion is independent of horizontal motion

Time to max height = u sinθ / g; total time = 2 × this
 Maximum Height: H = (u² sin²θ) / (2g)

Height depends only on vertical component of velocity

Maximum height occurs at T/2

Horizontal Range: R = (u² sin 2θ) / g

Maximum when θ = 45°: Rₘₐₓ = u²/g

Two complementary angles (θ and 90° - θ) give same range

3. MECHANICS: LAWS OF MOTION &

FRICTION
Newton's Laws
First Law: Object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by unbalanced force

Second Law: F = ma (or F = dp/dt)

Force equals mass times acceleration

Fundamental equation for mechanics

Third Law: Fₐᵦ = -Fᵦₐ

Forces occur in pairs; equal magnitude, opposite direction

Action and reaction never cancel (act on different objects)

Friction
Static Friction: fₛ ≤ μₛ N

Maximum static friction; prevents motion

Self-adjusting; actual friction ≤ maximum
Object doesn't move if applied force < max static friction

Kinetic Friction: fₖ = μₖ N

Constant during relative motion

Always kinetic = μₖN (no ≤ sign)
μₖ < μₛ (kinetic less than maximum static)

Motion on Incline (without friction): a = g sinθ

Motion on Incline (with friction): a = g(sinθ - μ cosθ)

Condition for motion: sinθ > μ cosθ

 Angle of repose: θᵣ = tan⁻¹(μ)

4. MECHANICS: WORK, ENERGY &

POWER
Work
W = F·s = Fs cosθ

Scalar product of force and displacement

Only component of force along displacement does work
W > 0: Force and displacement same direction
W = 0: Force perpendicular to displacement
W < 0: Force opposes displacement

Work by gravity: Wg = mgh (path-independent) Work by friction: Wf = -μNd (always negative) Work by spring: Ws =
(1/2)kx₁² - (1/2)kx₂²

Kinetic & Potential Energy

KE = (1/2)mv²

Energy due to motion

Always positive; depends on speed, not velocity direction

PE (gravitational) = mgh

Energy against gravity (reference at ground)

Only ΔPE is physically meaningful

PE (elastic) = (1/2)kx²

Energy stored in compressed/extended spring

Same for compression or extension

Work-Energy Theorem & Conservation

Wₙₑₜ = ΔKE = KEf - KEi

Mechanical Energy: E = KE + PE = constant (if only conservative forces)

With non-conservative forces: KEi + PEi + Wₙc = KEf + PEf

Power
 P = W/t (Average Power)

P = F·v = Fv cosθ (Instantaneous Power)

Rate of energy transfer

Unit: Watt (W) = J/s

For rotation: P = τ·ω (torque × angular velocity)

5. MECHANICS: CIRCULAR MOTION

Uniform Circular Motion
Angular velocity: ω = θ/t (rad/s)

Relation: ω = 2π/T = 2πf

Linear velocity: v = rω = 2πr/T

Centripetal acceleration: ac = v²/r = rω²

Always toward center (perpendicular to velocity)

Centripetal force: Fc = mv²/r = mrω²

Source: Can be tension, gravity, friction, normal force

Not a new force; resultant of existing forces toward center

Conical Pendulum
Angle with vertical: cos θ = g/(ω²r) where r = l sinθ

Angular velocity: ω = √(g / l cosθ)

Vertical Circular Motion

Minimum speed at bottom: vbottom = √(5gr)

At top: minimum is when N = 0, so mg = mv²/r ⟹ vtop = √(gr)

Energy conservation: (1/2)mvbottom² = (1/2)mvtop² + mg(2r)

Minimum speed at top: vtop = √(gr)

Banking of Roads (frictionless): tan θ = v²/(gr)

Optimal banking angle for specific speed v

 6. MECHANICS: ROTATIONAL MOTION
& ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Rotational Kinematics
Angular displacement: θ = ω₀t + (1/2)αt² Angular velocity: ω = ω₀ + αt Angular analog of v² = u² + 2as: ω² = ω₀² +
2αθ

Moment of Inertia
I = Σ mᵢrᵢ² (discrete) or I = ∫ r² dm (continuous)

Common Moments (about center):

Rod (about center): I = (1/12)ML²

Rod (about end): I = (1/3)ML²
Solid cylinder (about axis): I = (1/2)MR²
Hollow cylinder (about axis): I = MR²
Solid sphere: I = (2/5)MR²
Hollow sphere: I = (2/3)MR²

Parallel Axis Theorem: I = Icm + Md²

Torque & Angular Acceleration

τ = r × F = rF sinθ

Rotational equivalent of force

Maximum when F ⊥ r; zero when F passes through axis

τ = Iα (Rotational analog: F = ma becomes τ = Iα)

Angular Momentum
L = Iω (For rigid body rotation about fixed axis)

General form: L = r × p = mvr sinθ

Torque and Angular Momentum: τ = dL/dt

Conservation of Angular Momentum: If τext = 0, then L = constant

Example: Ice skater spinning faster when arms drawn in

Rotational Kinetic Energy

 KErot = (1/2)Iω²

Pure Rolling (no slipping): v = rω

Total KE: KEtotal = (1/2)mv² + (1/2)Iω² = (1/2)mv²(1 + I/mr²)

Rolling down incline: a = g sinθ / (1 + I/mr²)

7. MECHANICS: GRAVITATION
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
F = G(m₁m₂)/r²

G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²

Force extends to infinity but decreases with r²

Gravitational Field & Potential

Field intensity: g = GM/r² (Force per unit mass)

At Earth's surface: g = GM/R² ≈ 9.8 m/s²

Variation with height: g' = g(R/(R+h))² ≈ g(1 - 2h/R) for h << R

Variation with depth: g' = g(1 - d/R) inside uniform sphere

Gravitational Potential: V = -GM/r (Zero at infinity)

Potential Energy: PE = -Gm₁m₂/r

Escape Velocity
vesc = √(2GM/R) = √(2gR)

Independent of mass m
For Earth: vesc ≈ 11.2 km/s

Orbital Motion
Orbital Speed: v = √(GM/r)

Orbital Period: T = 2π√(r³/GM)

Kepler's Third Law: T² ∝ r³ or T₁²/T₂² = r₁³/r₂³

 Total Orbital Energy: E = -GMm/(2r) (negative for bound orbit)

Geostationary Satellite:

Height ≈ 36,000 km
Period: T = 24 hours
Orbital radius ≈ 42,164 km (≈ 6.6 RE)

8. PROPERTIES OF MATTER & FLUID

MECHANICS
Stress, Strain & Elastic Moduli
Stress (σ) = F/A (Pascals) Strain (ε) = ΔL/L (dimensionless)

Young's Modulus: E = (Longitudinal Stress)/(Longitudinal Strain) = σ/ε

Resistance to lengthening/compressing
Steel ≈ 200 GPa, Copper ≈ 125 GPa

Bulk Modulus: K = -(ΔP)/(ΔV/V)

Resistance to volume change

Shear Modulus: G = (Shear Stress)/(Shear Strain)

Resistance to shear deformation

Poisson's Ratio: ν = -(Lateral Strain)/(Longitudinal Strain)

Range: 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

Relations: E = 2G(1 + ν), E = 3K(1 - 2ν)

Pressure in Fluids
Pressure: P = F/A (Pascals)

Hydrostatic Pressure: P = P₀ + ρgh

P₀ = atmospheric pressure
ρgh = additional pressure at depth h

Atmospheric Pressure: Patm ≈ 101,325 Pa ≈ 760 mmHg

Pascal's Law: Pressure applied to enclosed fluid transmits undiminished

 Continuity Equation
A₁v₁ = A₂v₂

Volume flow rate is constant for incompressible fluid

As pipe narrows, velocity increases

Bernoulli's Equation
P + (1/2)ρv² + ρgh = constant

Alternate Form: P/(ρg) + v²/(2g) + h = H (total head)

Components:

P/(ρg): Pressure head

v²/(2g): Velocity head
h: Gravitational head

Assumptions: Steady, incompressible, non-viscous flow

Applications: Venturi tube, aircraft lift, perfume atomizer

Surface Tension
σ = F/L (Force per unit length; N/m)

Capillary Rise/Fall: h = (2σ cosθ)/(ρgr)

h: Height risen (positive) or fallen (negative)

θ: Contact angle

Viscosity
Newton's Law: F = ηA(dv/dy)

η: Dynamic viscosity coefficient

Stokes' Law (Drag on sphere): F = 6πηrv

Terminal Velocity: vt = (2r²(ρs - ρf)g)/(9η)

Maximum velocity when drag = net downward force

9. OSCILLATIONS & SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Definition & Equations
Restoring Force: F = -kx (Hooke's Law) Acceleration: a = -ω²x (where ω² = k/m)

Displacement: x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ)

A: Amplitude; ω: Angular frequency; φ: Initial phase

Velocity: v(t) = Aω cos(ωt + φ) = ω√(A² - x²)

vmax = Aω (at x = 0)

Acceleration: a(t) = -Aω² sin(ωt + φ) = -ω²x

amax = Aω² (at x = ±A)

Period & Frequency

T = 2π/ω = 2π√(m/k) f = 1/T = ω/(2π)

Energy in SHM
Total Energy: E = (1/2)kA² = (1/2)mω²A² = constant

KE = (1/2)mv² = (1/2)mω²(A² - x²)

KEmax = (1/2)kA² (at x = 0)

PE = (1/2)kx² = (1/2)mω²x²

PEmax = (1/2)kA² (at x = ±A)

KE + PE = (1/2)kA² (constant; exchange between them)

Spring-Mass System
Period: T = 2π√(m/k) (same for horizontal and vertical)

Two springs in series: 1/keq = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂ Two springs in parallel: keq = k₁ + k₂

Simple Pendulum
Period (small angle): T = 2π√(l/g)
l: Length of pendulum
Valid when sin θ ≈ θ

Energy: E = mgl(1 - cos θmax)

Physical Pendulum
Period: T = 2π√(I/(mgd))

I: Moment of inertia about pivot

d: Distance from pivot to center of mass

Damped Oscillations
x(t) = Ae^(-γt) sin(ω't + φ)

γ: Damping constant
ω'² = ω² - γ²

Quality Factor: Q = ω/γ

High Q: Light damping, sharp oscillation

Low Q: Heavy damping, quick decay

10. MECHANICAL WAVES & SOUND

Wave Properties
Wave Equation: v = fλ

v: Wave speed; f: Frequency; λ: Wavelength

Wave Number: k = 2π/λ

Period: T = 1/f = λ/v

Wave Form: y(x,t) = A sin(kx - ωt + φ) (traveling right)

y(x,t) = A sin(kx + ωt + φ) (traveling left)

Wave Speed in Media

String (tension T, mass per length μ): v = √(T/μ)

Sound in Gas: vs = √(γRT/M) = √(γP/ρ)

In air at 0°C: vs ≈ 331 m/s

 Temperature dependence: vs(T) ≈ 331 + 0.6T (T in °C)

Sound in Liquid: vs = √(K/ρ) (K = bulk modulus)

Sound in Solid: vs = √(E/ρ) (E = Young's modulus)

Intensity & Sound Level

Intensity: I = Power/Area (W/m²)

For Traveling Wave: I = (1/2)ρvω²A²

Inverse Square Law: I ∝ 1/r²

Sound Level (Decibels): L = 10 log₁₀(I/I₀) dB

I₀ = 10⁻¹² W/m² (threshold of hearing)

Examples: 0 dB (silence), 60 dB (speech), 130 dB (pain)

Doppler Effect
Source Moving, Observer Stationary: f' = f(v/(v - vs))

Observer Moving, Source Stationary: f' = f((v + vo)/v)

General Formula: f' = f((v + vo)/(v - vs))

vs > 0: Source approaching (f' > f)

vo > 0: Observer approaching (f' > f)

Interference & Standing Waves

Constructive Interference: Path difference = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) Destructive Interference: Path difference = (n + 1/2)λ

Beats: fbeet = |f₁ - f₂|

Standing Waves - String (both ends fixed):

Fundamental: f₁ = v/(2L)
Harmonics: fn = nv/(2L)

Standing Waves - Open Pipe (both ends open):

fn = nv/(2L) (all harmonics)

Standing Waves - Closed Pipe (one end closed):

fn = (2n-1)v/(4L) (only odd harmonics)

11. THERMODYNAMICS & KINETIC
THEORY
Heat & Temperature
Specific Heat Capacity: c = Q/(mΔT) (J/(kg·K))

Heat Capacity: C = Q/ΔT = mc

Heat Needed: Q = mcΔT

Latent Heat: Q = mL (Energy for phase change)

Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion: ΔL = αL₀ΔT (α = coefficient)

Volume Expansion: ΔV = γV₀ΔT (γ ≈ 3α)

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT (n = moles; R = 8.314 J/(mol·K)) PV = NkT (N = molecules; k = 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K)

Density Form: P = (ρRT)/M

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Root Mean Square Speed: vrms = √(3kT/m) = √(3RT/M)

Average KE: KE = (3/2)kT (per molecule)

Internal Energy: U = nCvT

Molar Heat Capacities:

Monatomic: Cv = (3/2)R
Diatomic: Cv = (5/2)R
Polyatomic: Cv = 3R

Pressure (Kinetic Theory): P = (1/3)ρvrms² = (2/3)nKE

First Law of Thermodynamics

ΔU = Q - W
ΔU: Change in internal energy
Q: Heat added (Q > 0 when heat enters)
W: Work done by system (W > 0 when system does work)

Q = ΔU + W = nCvΔT + PΔV

Thermodynamic Processes
Isochoric (V = constant):

W=0
ΔU = Q
P/T = constant

Isobaric (P = constant):

W = PΔV = nRΔT
Q = nCpΔT (Cp = Cv + R)
V/T = constant

Isothermal (T = constant):

ΔU = 0
Q = W = nRT ln(Vf/Vi)
PV = constant (Boyle's Law)

Adiabatic (Q = 0):

ΔU = -W
PV^γ = constant
TV^(γ-1) = constant
Tγ P(1-γ) = constant
γ = Cp/Cv

Heat Capacity Relations

Cp - Cv = R (Mayer's Relation)

γ Values:

Monatomic: γ = 5/3 ≈ 1.67

Diatomic: γ = 7/5 = 1.4
Polyatomic: γ ≈ 1.3

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy: S = kB ln(Ω) (Boltzmann)
 Entropy Change: ΔS = Qrev/T

Second Law: ΔSuniverse ≥ 0 (spontaneous processes increase entropy)

Carnot Efficiency: η = 1 - Tc/Th (maximum possible)

Heat Engines
Efficiency: η = W/Qh = (Qh - Qc)/Qh = 1 - Qc/Qh

Carnot Engine: ηC = 1 - Tc/Th

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Power Radiated: P = σAT⁴

σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/(m²·K⁴)

Net Radiation: Pnet = σA(T⁴ - T₀⁴)

12. ELECTROSTATICS
Coulomb's Law
F = k(q₁q₂)/r² = (1/(4πε₀))(q₁q₂)/r²

k = 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²
ε₀ = 8.85 × 10⁻¹² F/m
Repulsive if same sign; attractive if opposite

Electric Field
E = F/q = kQ/r² (Force per unit charge)

Direction: Away from +, toward -

Field from Line Charge (λ): E = λ/(2πε₀r)

Field from Sheet (σ): E = σ/(2ε₀) (uniform, distance-independent)

Electric Potential
V = W/q = -∫∞ᵣ E·dr

Work per unit charge from ∞ to r

Unit: Volt (V) = J/C
 From Point Charge: V = (1/(4πε₀))(Q/r)

Field-Potential Relation: E = -dV/dr (1D)

Potential Difference: VAB = VA - VB = -∫ᴮᴬ E·dr

Electric Potential Energy

U = q·V = (1/(4πε₀))(q₁q₂)/r

Reference: Zero at r = ∞

System of Charges: U = Σᵢ (1/(4πε₀))(qᵢqⱼ/rᵢⱼ)

Gauss's Law
∮ E·dA = Qenclosed/ε₀

Electric flux through closed surface = enclosed charge/ε₀

Flux: ΦE = ∮ E·dA = EA cosθ (if E uniform)

Capacitance
C = Q/V (Farads; charge per unit voltage)

Parallel Plate Capacitor: C = (ε₀εrA)/d

With Dielectric: C = εrC₀

Spherical: C = 4πε₀R (isolated sphere)

Cylindrical: C = (2πε₀l)/ln(r₂/r₁)

Capacitors in Circuits
Series: 1/Ceq = Σ(1/Cᵢ)

Same charge on all

Voltages add

Parallel: Ceq = ΣCᵢ

Same voltage across all

Charges add

Energy in Capacitor
U = (1/2)CV² = (1/2)Q²/C = (1/2)QV
 Energy Density: u = (1/2)ε₀E² (per unit volume)

13. ELECTRIC CURRENT & CIRCUITS

Electric Current
I = Q/t (Amperes; charge per unit time)

Current Density: J = I/A (A/m²)

Ohm's Law
V = IR or I = V/R

Microscopic Form: J = σE (σ = conductivity)

Resistance: R = ρ(l/A)

ρ: Resistivity (Ω·m)
l: Length; A: Cross-sectional area

Temperature Dependence: R(T) = R₀[1 + α(T - T₀)]

Power in Circuits
Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R

Joule Heating: Q = I²Rt

EMF & Internal Resistance

Terminal Voltage: V = ε - Ir

ε: EMF; r: Internal resistance

V = ε when no current (open circuit)

Kirchhoff's Laws
KCL (Current Law): ΣIin = ΣIout

KVL (Voltage Law): ΣV = 0 (around closed loop)

Resistances in Circuits
Series: Req = R₁ + R₂ + ...
Same current through all
Voltages add

Parallel: 1/Req = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ...

Same voltage across all

Currents add

Current Divider: I₁ = I(R₂/(R₁ + R₂))

Voltage Divider: V₁ = V(R₁/(R₁ + R₂))

14. MAGNETISM & MAGNETIC

EFFECTS
Magnetic Force
Lorentz Force: F = q(v × B)

F = qvB sinθ
Direction: Right-hand rule

Force on Current-Carrying Wire: F = I(L × B)

F = BIL sinθ

Magnetic Field
Biot-Savart Law: dB = (μ₀I/(4π))(dl × r)/r³

Long Straight Wire: B = (μ₀I)/(2πr)

Circular around wire (right-hand rule)

Circular Loop: B = (μ₀I)/(2r) (at center)

Solenoid: B = μ₀nI (inside; n = turns/length)

Ampere's Law: ∮ B·dl = μ₀Ienclosed

Magnetic Dipole Moment

μ = NIA (N = turns, I = current, A = area)

Torque: τ = μ × B = μB sinθ
 Potential Energy: U = -μ·B = -μB cosθ

Hall Effect
Hall Voltage: VH = BI/(net)

t: Thickness perpendicular to current

Hall Coefficient: RH = VHt/(BI)

15. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Magnetic Flux
ΦB = ∫ B·dA = BA cosθ

Faraday's Law
ε = -dΦB/dt (Induced EMF)

For N turns: ε = -N(dΦB/dt)

Negative sign: Lenz's law (induced EMF opposes change)

Lenz's Law
Induced current flows to oppose change in flux

If flux increasing into page, induced current opposes it

Motional EMF
ε = Blv

B: Magnetic field
l: Length of conductor moving perpendicular to B
v: Velocity

Self-Inductance
L = -ε/(dI/dt) = NΦB/I (Henry; H = Wb/A)

Solenoid: L = μ₀n²Al

Energy: U = (1/2)LI²
 Mutual Inductance
ε₂ = -M(dI₁/dt)

Transformer: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns = Is/Ip

Ideal transformer: VpIp = VsIs

16. ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

AC Voltage & Current
Instantaneous: v(t) = V₀ sin(ωt + φ), i(t) = I₀ sin(ωt)

RMS Values: Vrms = V₀/√2 ≈ 0.707 V₀

Angular Frequency: ω = 2πf = 2π/T

AC Circuit Elements
Pure Resistance (R):

Z=R
V and I in phase
P = VI = I²R (always dissipated)

Pure Inductance (L):

XL = ωL (reactance in Ohms)
V leads I by 90°
P = 0 (average)

Pure Capacitance (C):

XC = 1/(ωC)
I leads V by 90°
P = 0 (average)

RLC Series Circuit

Impedance: Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²)

Resonance: XL = XC, or ω₀ = 1/√(LC)

At resonance: Z = R (minimum); I = V/R (maximum)

Resonant frequency: f₀ = 1/(2π√(LC))
 Phase Angle: tan φ = (XL - XC)/R

φ > 0: V leads I (inductive)

φ < 0: I leads V (capacitive)

Power Factor: cos φ = R/Z

Power Consumed: P = VI cos φ = I²R

Quality Factor
Q = ω₀L/R = (1/R)√(L/C) = f₀/Δf

High Q: Sharp resonance

Low Q: Broad resonance

17. RAY OPTICS & LENSES

Laws of Reflection
Law 1: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection Law 2: Incident ray, reflected ray, normal are coplanar

Mirror Formula: 1/f = 1/u + 1/v

Magnification: m = -v/u

Sign Convention:

Real (opposite incident light): Positive

Virtual (same side as incident light): Negative

Focal Length: f = R/2

Refraction & Snell's Law

Snell's Law: n₁ sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂

Refractive Index: n = c/v

Critical Angle (TIR): sin θc = n₂/n₁

Total Internal Reflection: θ > θc (all light reflects)

Lens Formula
1/f = 1/u + 1/v
 Magnification: m = -v/u

Lens Maker's Formula: 1/f = (n-1)(1/R₁ - 1/R₂)

Power: P = 1/f (Diopters; D = 1/m)

Combination of Lenses
In Contact: 1/f = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂ + ...

Separated by d: 1/f = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂ - d/(f₁f₂)

Optical Instruments
Simple Magnifier: M = D/f (D ≈ 25 cm)

Compound Microscope: M = mo × me = (-vo/uo)(D/fe)

Telescope: M = fo/fe

18. WAVE OPTICS

Interference
Constructive: Path difference = nλ (bright fringes)

Destructive: Path difference = (n + 1/2)λ (dark fringes)

Young's Double Slit: β = λD/d

β: Fringe width
D: Distance to screen
d: Slit separation

Position of Maxima: yn = nλD/d

Diffraction
Single Slit: Minima at sin θ = nλ/b (b = slit width)

Diffraction Grating: d sin θ = nλ

Resolving Power: R = λ/Δλ = nN

Polarization
 Brewster's Angle: tan θB = n₂/n₁

Malus's Law: I = I₀ cos² θ

19. MODERN PHYSICS: ATOMS &

NUCLEI
Photon
Energy: E = hf = hc/λ

Momentum: p = h/λ = E/c

Photoelectric Effect: hf = φ + KEmax

φ: Work function
Stopping potential: eVs = KEmax

Bohr's Model of Hydrogen

Bohr Radius: rn = n²a₀ (a₀ = 0.53 Å)

Energy Levels: En = -(13.6 Z²)/n² eV

Wavelength of Emitted Photon: 1/λ = RZ²(1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)

Lyman (n₁ = 1, UV)

Balmer (n₁ = 2, visible)
Paschen (n₁ = 3, IR)

De Broglie Wavelength
λ = h/p = h/(mv)

For Accelerated Electron: λ = h/√(2meV)

Nuclear Physics
Nuclear Radius: R = R₀A^(1/3) (R₀ ≈ 1.2 fm)

Mass Defect: Δm = [Zmp + (A-Z)mn] - Mnucleus

Binding Energy: BE = Δm·c²

Binding Energy per Nucleon: BE/A (8-9 MeV typically)

 Radioactive Decay
N(t) = N₀e^(-λt)

Half-Life: T₁/₂ = ln(2)/λ = 0.693/λ

Activity: A = λN = dN/dt

Alpha Decay: ᴬZ X → ᴬ⁻⁴Z₋₂ Y + ⁴₂ He

Beta Decay: ᴬZ X → ᴬZ₊₁ Y + e⁻ + νe

Gamma Decay: ᴬZ X* → ᴬZ X + γ

20. SEMICONDUCTORS &

COMMUNICATION
Semiconductors
Band Gap Energy: Eg

Conductors: Eg ≈ 0
Semiconductors: Eg ≈ 1-3 eV
Insulators: Eg > 5 eV

N-type: Donor dopant; electrons are majority carriers

P-type: Acceptor dopant; holes are majority carriers

PN Junction Diode
Forward Bias: P-side positive; current flows easily

Reverse Bias: P-side negative; negligible current

Diode Equation: I = I₀(e^(qV/nkBT) - 1)

Digital Logic Gates

AND: Output 1 if all inputs 1 OR: Output 1 if any input 1 NOT: Output opposite of input NAND: NOT(AND) NOR:
NOT(OR) XOR: Output 1 if inputs differ

Communication Electronics
 Amplitude Modulation: s(t) = [A + m(t)]cos(ωct)

Bandwidth: BW = 2fm

Frequency Modulation: s(t) = A cos[ωct + Δφ sin(ωmt)]

Bandwidth: BW = 2(Δf + fm)

EXAM TIPS & COMMON PITFALLS

Mechanics
Sign conventions: Be consistent
Displacement vs Distance: Displacement is vector
Friction: Static ≤ μsN; Kinetic = μkN
Circular: Centripetal acceleration toward center

Thermodynamics
First Law: ΔU = Q - W (watch signs)
Adiabatic: Q = 0, not T = 0
Isothermal: ΔU = 0, not W = 0
Specific heats: Different at P vs V constant

Electrostatics
PE: Zero at infinity
E-field: Force per positive charge
Capacitors: Series uses 1/C; Parallel adds C

Optics
Sign convention matters (real/virtual)
m < 0: Inverted; m > 0: Erect
Critical angle: sin θc = n₂/n₁

Modern Physics
E = hf only; use hc/λ for energy in eV
Bohr model: H-like atoms only
Decay: Exponential; half-life is T₁/₂
 QUICK REFERENCE: DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS
Quantity SI Unit Dimension
Velocity m/s LT⁻¹
Acceleration m/s² LT⁻²
Force N MLT⁻²
Work/Energy J ML²T⁻²
Power W ML²T⁻³
Momentum kg·m/s MLT⁻¹
Torque N·m ML²T⁻²
Pressure Pa ML⁻¹T⁻²
Charge C AT
E-field N/C MLT⁻³A⁻¹
B-field T MT⁻²A⁻¹
Frequency Hz T⁻¹

This formula sheet covers all essential physics for CBSE Class 11-12 and JEE Main/Advanced 2026. Regular
revision and problem practice are key to mastery.