Geophysical Exploration
Exploration geophysics is the applied branch of geophysics which uses surface methods to
measure the physical properties of the subsurface Earth, along with the anomalies in these
properties, in order to detect or infer the presence and position of ore minerals, hydrocarbons,
geothermal reservoirs, groundwater reservoirs, and other geological structures.
Exploration geophysics is the practical application of physical methods (such as seismic,
gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic) to measure the physical properties of
rocks, and in particular, to detect the measurable physical differences between rocks that
contain ore deposits or hydrocarbons and those without.
Exploration geophysics can be used to directly detect the target style of mineralisation, via
measuring its physical properties directly. For example, one may measure the density contrasts
between iron ore and silicate wall rocks, or may measure the electrical conductivity contrast
between conductive sulphide minerals and barren silicate minerals.
Uses
Exploration geophysics is also used to map the subsurface structure of a region, to elucidate
the underlying structures, spatial distribution of rock units, and to detect structures such as
faults, folds and intrusive rocks. This is an indirect method for assessing the likelihood of ore
deposits or hydrocarbon accumulations.
Methods devised for finding mineral or hydrocarbon deposits can also be used in other areas
such as monitoring environmental impact, imaging subsurface archaeological sites, ground
water investigations, subsurface salinity mapping, civil engineering site investigations and
interplanetary imaging.
Geophysical Surveys: -
Mineral Exploration
Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore
(direct detection), or in some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or
inferential detection).
The most direct method of detection of ore via magnetism involves detecting iron ore
mineralisation via mapping magnetic anomalies associated with banded iron formations which
usually contain magnetite in some proportion. Skarn mineralisation, which often contains
magnetite, can also be detected though the ore minerals themselves would be non-magnetic.
Similarly, magnetite, hematite and often pyrrhotite are common minerals associated with
hydrothermal alteration, and this alteration can be detected to provide an inference that some
mineralising hydrothermal event has affected the rocks.
Gravity surveying can be used to detect dense bodies of rocks within host formations of less
dense wall rocks. This can be used to directly detect Mississippi Valley Type ore deposits, iron
oxide copper gold ore deposits (IOCG) ore deposits, iron ore deposits, skarn deposits and salt
diapirs which can form oil and gas traps.
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Electromagnetic (EM) surveys can be used to help detect a wide variety of mineral deposits,
especially base metal sulphides via detection of conductivity anomalies which can be generated
around sulphide bodies in the subsurface. EM surveys are also used in diamond exploration
(where the kimberlite pipes tend to have lower resistance than enclosing rocks), graphite
exploration, palaeochannel-hosted uranium deposits (which are associated with shallow
aquifers, which often respond to EM surveys in conductive overburden). These are indirect
inferential methods of detecting mineralisation, as the commodity being sought is not directly
conductive, or not sufficiently conductive to be measurable. EM surveys are also used in
unexploded ordnance, archaeological, and geotechnical investigations.
Regional EM surveys are conducted via airborne methods, using either fixed-wing aircraft or
helicopter-borne EM rigs. Surface EM methods are based mostly on Transient EM methods
using surface loops with a surface receiver, or a downhole tool lowered into a borehole which
transects a body of mineralisation. These methods can map out sulphide bodies within the earth
in 3 dimensions, and provide information to geologists to direct further exploratory drilling on
known mineralisation. Surface loop surveys are rarely used for regional exploration, however
in some cases such surveys can be used with success (e.g.; SQUID surveys for nickel ore
bodies).
Electric-resistance methods such as induced polarization methods can be useful for directly
detecting sulphide bodies, coal and resistive rocks such as salt and carbonates.
The data collected from every source is processed and bring into intelligence for further
analysis. This helps in rig monitoring and prescriptive analysis. Now a days, all these analyses
are done with the help of software/apps.
Oil and gas
Seismic reflection techniques are the most widely used geophysical technique in hydrocarbon
exploration. They are used to map the subsurface distribution of stratigraphy and its structure
which can be used to delineate potential hydrocarbon accumulations. Well logging is another
widely used technique as it provides necessary high-resolution information about rock and fluid
properties in a vertical section, although they are limited in areal extent. This limitation in areal
extent is the reason why seismic reflection techniques are so popular; they provide a method
for interpolating and extrapolating well log information over a much larger area.
Gravity and magnetics are also used, with considerable frequency, in oil and gas exploration.
These can be used to determine the geometry and depth of covered geological structures
including uplifts, subsiding basins, faults, folds, igneous intrusions and salt diapirs due to their
unique density and magnetic susceptibility signatures compared to the surrounding rocks.
Remote sensing techniques, specifically hyperspectral imaging, have been used to detect
hydrocarbon microseepages using the spectral signature of geochemically altered soils and
vegetation.
Magnetotellurics and Controlled source electro-magnetic can provide pseudo-direct detection
of hydrocarbons by detecting resistivity changes. It can also complement seismic data when
imaging below salt.
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Civil engineering
Ground penetrating radar is used within civil construction and engineering for a variety of uses,
including detection of utilities (buried water, gas, sewerage, electrical and telecommunication
cables), mapping of soft soils and overburden for geotechnical characterization, and other
similar uses.
Civil engineering can also use remote sensing information for topographical mapping, planning
and environmental impact assessment. Airborne electromagnetic surveys are also used to
characterize soft sediments in planning and engineering roads, dams and other structures.
Magnetotellurics has proven useful for delineating groundwater reservoirs, mapping faults
around areas where hazardous substances are stored (e.g., nuclear power stations and nuclear
waste storage facilities), and earthquake precursor monitoring in areas with major structures
such as hydro-electric dams subject to high levels of seismic activity.
BS 5930 is the standard used in the UK as a code of practice for site investigations.
Archaeology
Ground penetrating radar can be used to map buried artifacts, such as graves, mortuaries, wreck
sites, and other shallowly buried archaeological sites.
Ground magnetometric surveys can be used for detecting buried ferrous metals, useful in
surveying shipwrecks, modern battlefields strewn with metal debris, and even subtle
disturbances such as large-scale ancient ruins.
Sonar systems can be used to detect shipwrecks.
Forensics
Ground penetrating radar can be used to detect grave sites.
Unexploded ordnance detection
Magnetic and electromagnetic surveys can be used to locate unexploded ordnance.
Electrical Resistivity Methods
The electrical resistivity method is used to map the subsurface electrical resistivity structure,
which is interpreted by the geophysicist to determine geologic structure and/or physical
properties of the geologic materials. The electrical resistivity of a geologic unit or target is
measured in ohmmeters, and is a function of porosity, permeability, water saturation and the
concentration of dissolved solids in pore fluids within the subsurface. Electrical resistivity
methods measure the bulk resistivity of the subsurface as do electromagnetic methods. The
electrical geophysical methods are used to determine the electrical resistivity of the earth's
subsurface. Thus, electrical methods are employed for those applications in which a knowledge
of resistivity or the resistivity distribution will solve or shed light on the problem at hand. The
resolution, depth, and areal extent of investigation are functions of the particular electrical
method employed. Once resistivity data have been acquired, the resistivity distribution of the
subsurface can be interpreted in terms of soil characteristics and/or rock type and geological
structure. Resistivity data are usually integrated with other geophysical results and with surface
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and subsurface geological data to arrive at an interpretation. Electrical methods can be broadly
classified into two groups: those using a controlled (human-generated) energy source and those
using naturally occurring electrical or electromagnetic energy as a source. The controlled
source methods are most commonly used for shallow investigations, from characterizing
surficial materials to investigating resistivities down to depths as great as 1 to 2 km, although
greater depths of investigation are possible with some techniques and under some conditions.
The natural source methods are applicable from depths of tens of meters to great depths well
beyond those of interest to hydrocarbon development.
Controlled source methods
Controlled source methods use generated currents or electromagnetic fields as energy sources.
An advantage is the control over energy levels and the attendant positive effects on signal to
noise ratio in areas of high cultural noise. A disadvantage of controlled source methods is that
the complex nature of the source field geometry (the geometry of the electromagnetic field or
currents induced with the earth by the transmitter) may present quantitative interpretation
problems in areas of complex geology.
In the DC method, a current (usually a very low frequency square wave and not actually direct
current) is injected into the earth through a pair of current electrodes, and the resulting potential
field is mapped. Various geometries of current and potential electrodes have been employed,
with the choice primarily based upon the depth and geometry of the survey target. The
measured surface potential field is interpreted in terms of the subsurface resistivity distribution
through modeling and inversion techniques. [2] Induced polarization (IP) and complex
resistivity (CR) techniques are special cases of the DC method in which the induced potential
field is measured and interpreted in terms of mineralogy and/or soil characteristics. IP and CR
have been applied with some success to hydrocarbon exploration through the measurement of
geochemical alteration halos that have been found to be related to reservoirs under some
conditions.
In the electromagnetic (EM) method, an electromagnetic field is produced on or above the
surface of the ground. This primary EM field induces currents in subsurface conductors. The
induced currents in turn reradiate secondary EM fields. These secondary fields can be detected
on or above the surface as either a distortion in the primary field (frequency domain methods)
or as they decay following the turning off of the primary field (time domain methods). Both
loops GAURAV SRIVASTAVA, Civil Engg. Deptt., FoET, LU and grounded wires are used to
generate the source field. Resistivities are calculated from the observed electromagnetic field
data using modeling and inversion techniques.
EM techniques have been adapted to a variety of surface and airborne configuration, with the
airborne instruments generally limited in penetration to 100 to 200 m. Airborne
electromagnetic surveys have proven very effective for mapping the shallow resistivity
distribution, leading to cost-effective surveys over large areas. Surface loop or grounded wire
systems are applicable to depths well in excess of 1 km, although high power transmitters are
required as depth increases. The resolution attainable is normally considered as a percentage
of penetration depth, such that absolute resolution decreases with depth.
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In the controlled source magnetotelluric (CSMT) method, a low frequency electromagnetic
wave is generated, and the electrical and magnetic fields are measured at some distance from
the transmitter. The wave impedance of the electromagnetic wave at the receiver is calculated
from the electrical and magnetic field values as a function of frequency and then interpreted in
terms of the subsurface resistivity distribution. Depths of penetration in excess of 1 to 2 km are
attainable under suitable conditions.
Ground probing radar (GPR) is used for detailed investigations of the shallow subsurface.
An extremely short pulse is generated and transmitted into the earth and reflections are received
from interfaces between materials of differing resistivity and dielectrical constant. GPR
instrumentation is sophisticated but highly portable. Depth of penetration is limited from less
than 0.3 m in silty soils to over 100 m in permafrost, freshwater-saturated sand, and some very
low porosity rocks. Successful applications include the measurement of ice thickness, the
location of cracks in ice, permafrost studies, the detailed mapping of the bedrock surface, the
examination of soil stratification, and the mapping of contaminant plumes in the shallow
subsurface. An important application of GPR is locating buried pipes, tanks, and other objects
that reflect the radar pulse
Advantages
A principal advantage of the electrical resistivity method is that quantitative modeling is
possible using either computer software or published master curves. The resulting models can
provide accurate estimates of depth, thickness and electrical resistivity of subsurface layers.
The layered electrical resistivities can GAURAV SRIVASTAVA, Civil Engg. Deptt., FoET, LU
then be used to estimate the electrical resistivity of the saturating fluid, which is related to the
total concentration of dissolved solids in the fluid.
Limitations
Limitations of using the electrical resistivity method in ground water pollution investigations
are largely due to site characteristics, rather than in any inherent limitations of the method.
Typically, sites are located in industrial areas that contain an abundance of broad-spectrum
electrical noise. In conducting an electrical resistivity survey, the voltages are relayed to the
receiver over long wires that are grounded at each end. These wires act as an antenna receiving
the radiated electrical noise that in turn degrades the quality of the measured voltages. Electrical
resistivity surveys require a fairly large area, far removed from power lines and grounded
metallic structures such as metal fences, pipelines and railroad tracks. This requirement
precludes using this technique at many ground water pollution sites.
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