1

INDEX
Environment and Ecology............................................................................................................................ 1

Ecology...................................................................................................................................................... 2

Ecosystem......................................................................................................................................................4

Biodiversity.................................................................................................................................................... 7

C
Biological Diversity Act, 2002...................................................................................................................10

PS
Biodiversity Conservation – Wetlands......................................................................................................11

Mangroves............................................................................................................................................... 13

U
Biodiversity Conservation – Coastal Areas..............................................................................................14

Environmental pollution..............................................................................................................................17
d
Air Pollution..............................................................................................................................................17
an
Smog........................................................................................................................................................19

Soil Pollution............................................................................................................................................ 20
St

Water Pollution.........................................................................................................................................21
er

Noise Pollution......................................................................................................................................... 23

Plastic Pollution........................................................................................................................................24
nd

Solid Waste.............................................................................................................................................. 25

E- Waste.................................................................................................................................................. 28
U

Oil Spills................................................................................................................................................... 29

Radioactive Pollution............................................................................................................................... 30

Environmental Degradation and Conservation........................................................................................ 31

Land Degradation and Desertification......................................................................................................32

Environmental Degradation versus Development....................................................................................33

Trading Carbon, Powering Growth: Rethinking Carbon Credits in India’s Energy Future....................... 34

Forest Conservation....................................................................................................................................36

2
Global Warming and Climate Change........................................................................................................40

COP 21/ Paris agreement [10 YEAR IN 2025]........................................................................................ 43

COP29 (Baku, Azerbaijan) (2024)........................................................................................................... 44

Environment Conservation and Sustainable Development.....................................................................45

Carrying Capacity: Guiding Sustainable Resource Use.......................................................................... 47

C
Environment Impact Assessment.............................................................................................................. 49

Miscellaneous.............................................................................................................................................. 52

PS
Wild life conservation............................................................................................................................... 52

The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022...................................................................................... 53

U
Antarctic Ice melting.................................................................................................................................54
d
Illegal Sand mining...................................................................................................................................56
an
Ocean Bottom trawling.............................................................................................................................57

ELECTRIC VEHICLES (EVs).................................................................................................................. 58

St
er
nd
U

Copyright Disclaimer
© 2025 UnderStand UPSC. All rights reserved.
This document and its contents are the intellectual property of UnderStand UPSC.
No part of this material may be copied, reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any form—whether
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the prior written permission of the
publisher. This content is intended solely for educational purposes and personal use by individuals.
Unauthorized distribution, uploading to websites or social media, or commercial usage is strictly
prohibited and may lead to legal action under applicable copyright laws. We value original educational
efforts and respectfully request all users to acknowledge and uphold content ownership. For permissions
or usage inquiries, please contact the official channel of UnderStand UPSC.

3
 Environment and Ecology
●​ Environment refers to the sum total of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components that
surround and influence an organism or a group of organisms.
●​ It encompasses natural, man-made, social, cultural, and economic conditions that affect life on
Earth.

Components of Environment
Component Description

C
1. Abiotic Non-living physical and chemical elements – air, water, soil, temperature, light.

PS
2. Biotic All living organisms – plants, animals, microbes.
3. Anthropogenic Human-made systems and influences – buildings, roads, pollution, technology.

Importance of Environment

U
1.​ Supports Life- Provides air, water, food, and shelter necessary for survival.
2.​ Ecological Balance -Maintains balance among species through food chains and nutrient cycles.
3.​ Regulates Climate- Forests, oceans, and atmosphere regulate temperature and precipitation.
d
4.​ Resource Pool- Source of renewable and non-renewable resources (minerals, fossil fuels, timber).
5.​ Cultural and Aesthetic Value- Landscapes, biodiversity, and ecosystems enrich human culture
an
and recreation.
6.​ Pollution Buffer- Acts as a sink for pollutants (e.g., wetlands absorb waste).
7.​ Sustainable Development Base- Environment is foundational to economic progress, if managed
wisely.
St

Threats to Environment
er

1.​ Climate Change

●​ Caused by GHG emissions (CO₂, CH₄).
●​ Leads to global warming, sea level rise, erratic weather.
nd

●​ The 2024 North Indian heatwave saw record-breaking temperatures in Delhi and Rajasthan
2.​ Deforestation
●​ Forest clearance for agriculture, mining, urbanisation.
●​ Results in biodiversity loss, climate imbalance, soil erosion.
U

●​ Large-scale deforestation in central India’s Hasdeo Arand forest for coal mining has
threatened tribal livelihoods and elephant corridors.
3.​ Pollution
●​ Harms ecosystems and human health (e.g., Delhi air crisis).
●​ Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) regularly crosses 400+ in winter
4.​ Loss of Biodiversity
●​ Due to habitat destruction, poaching, invasive species.
●​ Weakens ecosystem resilience.
●​ The Great Indian Bustard, once widespread, is now critically endangered due to habitat loss
5.​ Land Degradation
●​ Causes: Overgrazing, mining, deforestation, faulty irrigation.
●​ Leads to desertification, reduced crop yield.
●​ Over-irrigation and salinity in Punjab's Malwa region have led to declining soil fertility
6.​ Overpopulation
●​ Increases pressure on water, land, energy, and forests.
1
 ●​ Unsustainable consumption patterns.
●​ In Mumbai, overcrowding and slum expansion have intensified stress on sanitation, clean
water
7.​ Overexploitation of Natural Resources
●​ Excessive mining, groundwater extraction, overfishing.
●​ Leads to depletion and ecological imbalance.
●​ Over-extraction of groundwater has led to water scarcity and dried-up borewells
8.​ Urbanisation and Infrastructure Development
●​ Land use change, pollution, heat islands.
●​ Causes habitat fragmentation and waste generation.

C
●​ Bengaluru’s rapid expansion has led to loss of lakes and green cover
9.​ Industrialisation
●​ Chemical discharge, thermal pollution, GHG emissions.

PS
●​ Contributes to pollution and climate change.
●​ The Korba region in Chhattisgarh, known for its coal-based thermal power plants, suffers
from high air and water pollution
10.​Marine and Coastal Degradation

U
●​ Coral bleaching, oil spills, plastic pollution.
●​ Affects marine biodiversity and livelihoods.
●​ The 2017 oil spill off Chennai’s Ennore coast affected local fisheries and damaged marine
decosystems.
an
Ecology
●​ Ecology studies interactions between organisms and their environment.
●​ Levels: Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere.
St

Levels of Ecology
er

Level Description Example

Organism Individual living being and its adaptations to Cactus surviving in the desert.
the environment.
nd

Population Group of individuals of the same species in an Deer population in a forest.

area.
Community All populations (multiple species) in a given Pond community (fish, frogs).
U

area.
Ecosystem Community + abiotic environment + their Coral reef ecosystem.
interactions.
Biome Large regional ecosystem shaped by climate Tropical rainforest biome.
and vegetation.
Biosphere Global ecological system integrating all living Earth as one life-supporting system.
beings.

2
Principles of Ecology
1.​ Interdependence of Organisms- All organisms are interconnected via food webs, nutrient cycles,
etc.
2.​ Energy Flow is Unidirectional- Solar → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers → Heat loss at
each level (10% Rule).
3.​ Nutrient Cycling is Cyclical- Elements like carbon, nitrogen, water cycle through biotic and
abiotic components.
4.​ Limiting Factor Principle- Growth of a population is controlled by the scarcest resource (Liebig’s
Law).
5.​ Homeostasis- Ecosystems tend to maintain dynamic equilibrium despite disturbances.

C
6.​ Succession and Climax- Ecosystems evolve through stages of succession toward a stable
climax community.

PS
7.​ Carrying Capacity- Each ecosystem has a limit to how many organisms it can support sustainably.
8.​ Adaptation and Evolution- Organisms evolve adaptive traits to survive in their specific ecological
niches.

U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

3
 Ecosystem
Each year a large amount of plant material, cellulose, is deposited on the surface of PlanetEarth. What
are the natural processes this cellulose undergoes before yielding carbon dioxide,water and other end
products? [10 Marks] (2022)

Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components interact
dynamically.

C
Types of Ecosystem
Based on Origin

PS
Type Description Examples
1. Natural Ecosystem Develop naturally without human Forests, oceans, grasslands
interference

U
2. Artificial Ecosystem Created and maintained by human beings Croplands, aquariums, urban
parks
d
Based on Habitat
Terrestrial Ecosystem- Found on land; influenced by climate, soil, and altitude.
an
Sub-type Key Features Examples
Forest Dense vegetation, rich biodiversity Tropical rainforest, temperate forest
St

Grassland Dominated by grasses, few trees Savannahs, Prairies

Desert Low rainfall, sparse vegetation Thar Desert, Sahara
er

Tundra Frozen soil (permafrost), minimal vegetation Arctic tundra

Mountain Steep slopes, altitudinal zonation Himalayas
nd

Aquatic Ecosystem- Water-based; divided by salinity (freshwater vs marine).

Sub-type Characteristics Examples
U

Freshwater Low salinity, includes lotic and lentic systems Ponds, lakes, rivers, wetlands
Marine High salinity, largest ecosystem by volume Oceans, seas, coral reefs
Estuarine Mixing zone of fresh & marine water Sundarbans delta, river mouths

Structure of Ecosystem
●​ Components:
○​ Abiotic: Water, temperature, soil, minerals, sunlight.
○​ Biotic:
■​ Producers (Autotrophs): Green plants, algae.
■​ Consumers (Heterotrophs): Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores.
■​ Decomposers (Saprotrophs): Bacteria, fungi.
●​ Stratification: Vertical layering of organisms; e.g., trees → shrubs → herbs.

4
Properties of an Ecosystem
1.​ Structural Organisation: Ecosystems consist of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components.
2.​ Energy Flow: Energy flows unidirectionally from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
3.​ Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients are recycled between biotic and abiotic components through
biogeochemical cycles.
4.​ Productivity: Ecosystems produce biomass via photosynthesis (GPP and NPP).
5.​ Trophic Levels: Organisms are arranged in food chains/webs based on feeding levels (producers
→ consumers).
6.​ Self-Sustainability: Natural ecosystems are capable of maintaining themselves through internal
regulation.

C
7.​ Dynamic Balance: Ecosystems maintain a state of equilibrium (homeostasis) through feedback
mechanisms.

PS
8.​ Interdependence: All organisms interact and depend on each other for energy, nutrients, and
survival.
9.​ Stratification: Vertical layering of species occurs, especially in terrestrial ecosystems like forests.
10.​Succession: Ecosystems undergo gradual changes over time from a simpler to a more complex

U
state.

Key Ecosystem Processes

Productivity
d
●​ Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total organic matter produced via photosynthesis.
●​ Net Primary Productivity (NPP): GPP – respiration losses (R); biomass available to consumers.
an
●​ Secondary Productivity: Biomass generation by consumers.
Decomposition
●​ Process: Breakdown of detritus (dead organic matter) into inorganic nutrients.
St

●​ Stages:
○​ Fragmentation: Detritivores like earthworms break detritus into smaller particles.
○​ Leaching: Water-soluble nutrients drain into lower soil layers.
er

○​ Catabolism: Microbes enzymatically degrade detritus into simpler substances.

○​ Humification: Formation of humus, a dark, nutrient-rich, stable organic matter.
○​ Mineralisation: Microbial breakdown of humus releases inorganic nutrients.
nd

●​ Factors Affecting Rate: Warm, moist, oxygen-rich environments promote faster decomposition;
lignin-rich detritus slows it.
Energy Flow
●​ Source: Sun (except deep-sea vents).
U

●​ Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR): ~50% of solar radiation; only 2–10% utilized by
plants.
●​ Unidirectional Flow: Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers.
●​ Laws Applied: Obeys First & Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
●​ Trophic Levels:
○​ 1st: Producers
○​ 2nd: Primary consumers (herbivores)
○​ 3rd: Secondary consumers (carnivores)
○​ 4th: Tertiary consumers
●​ 10% Law: Only ~10% energy transfers to the next level; rest lost as heat.
●​ Food Chains:
○​ Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Producer → Herbivore → Carnivore.
○​ Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Dead matter → Decomposers → Detritivores.
●​ Food Web: Interlinked food chains; omnivores link GFC and DFC.

5
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids are graphical representations showing the relationship between producers and
consumers at different trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Type Description Nature

Pyramid of Number Based on number of organisms Upright or Inverted
Pyramid of Biomass Based on dry weight/area Usually upright; inverted in aquatic systems
Pyramid of Energy Based on energy content Always upright (due to heat loss at each level)

C
PS
U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

6
 Biodiversity
How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of
flora and fauna? [15M] (2018)

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life forms on Earth, including plants, animals,
microorganisms, and the ecosystems they form.

Status of Biodiversity in India

C
Aspect Details

PS
India’s Global Rank One of the 17 megadiverse countries of the world.
Total Species Recorded 91,000 animal species and 45,000 plant species.
Percentage of World 7–8% of recorded species globally.
Biodiversity

U
Endemic Species High endemism: 33% of flowering plants, 60% of amphibians.
Hotspots in India
d 4: Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats, Sundaland (Nicobar).
Sacred Groves 13,000+ groves conserved through traditional cultural practices.
an
Levels of Biodiversity
Level Description Example
St

Genetic Variation of genes within a species. Helps in 1,000+ rice varieties in India.
Diversity adaptability and survival.
Species Variety of different species within a region or Western Ghats: high amphibian
er

Diversity ecosystem. diversity.

Ecosystem Variety of ecosystems in a given geographical Forests, wetlands, coral reefs, deserts
nd

Diversity region. in India.

Biodiversity Hotspot
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with: High species richness, High endemism, Under
U

significant threat from human activities

Criteria for a Hotspot (as per Conservation International)

1.​ At least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
1.​ Must have lost at least 70% of its original natural vegetation.

7
Biodiversity Hotspots in India
India hosts 4 of the 34 global hotspots, which also cover parts of neighboring countries:
Biodiversity Hotspot Key States/Regions Characteristics & Species
1. Himalaya J&K, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Snow leopards, red pandas,
Sikkim, NE rhododendrons
2. Indo-Burma NE India, Myanmar, Andaman High orchid and freshwater turtle diversity
(partially)
3. Western Ghats Kerala, TN, Karnataka, Goa, MH Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, endemic
amphibians

C
4. Sundaland Nicobar Islands (not Dugongs, Nicobar megapode, coral reef
(Nicobar only) Andaman) biodiversity

PS
Importance of Biodiversity
1. Ecological Importance

U
●​ Ecosystem stability: Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to environmental changes.
●​ Food chains and nutrient cycles: Biodiversity ensures functional energy flow and biogeochemical
cycles.
●​ Pollination & seed dispersal: By bees, bats, birds, essential for reproduction in many crops and
d
wild plants.
●​ Climate regulation: Forests, wetlands, and oceans help in carbon sequestration and temperature
an
regulation.
●​ Waste decomposition: Microbial diversity breaks down organic matter and recycles nutrients.
2. Economic Importance
St

●​ Agriculture & food security: Crop diversity ensures pest resistance, climate adaptability, and
productivity.
●​ Medicinal resources: 80% of the world’s population depends on plant-based traditional medicine
er

(e.g., neem, turmeric).

●​ Industrial materials: Timber, bamboo, fibers, resins, biofuels, all derive from biodiversity.
●​ Tourism & recreation: Eco-tourism (e.g., Kaziranga, Corbett) generates revenue and employment.
nd

3. Social and Cultural Importance

●​ Traditional knowledge: Indigenous communities have deep knowledge of local biodiversity (e.g.,
medicinal plants).
●​ Spiritual and religious values: Many species are considered sacred (e.g., tulsi, peepal, cow,
U

elephant).
●​ Aesthetic and ethical value: Every species has a right to exist - "intrinsic value of life".
4. Scientific Importance
●​ Research and innovation: Biodiversity is a resource for biotechnological, agricultural, and
pharmaceutical research.
●​ Bioprospecting: Discovery of commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources (e.g.,
enzymes from extremophiles).

Major Threats to Biodiversity

1.​ Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
●​ Forests converted for agriculture, mining, dams, and urbanisation.
●​ Example: Submergence of forests due to Sardar Sarovar Dam (Narmada valley) displaced
wildlife.
2.​ Overexploitation of Resources
●​ Unsustainable fishing, hunting, timber extraction.
8
 ●​ Example: Sandalwood tree exploitation in South India.
3.​ Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
●​ Non-native species disrupt native ecosystems.
●​ Example: Lantana camara choking native forests in Western Ghats.
4.​ Climate Change
●​ Alters rainfall, temperature, sea levels → affects habitats and species survival.
●​ Example: Snow leopards in the Himalayas losing habitat due to warming.
5.​ Pollution
●​ Air, water, soil pollution harms ecosystems.
●​ Example: Oil spills along the eastern coast impacting mangroves and marine life.

C
6.​ Agricultural Expansion and Monoculture
●​ Diverse ecosystems replaced by single-crop zones.
7.​ Illegal Wildlife Trade and Poaching

PS
●​ Targeted killing/trading of protected species.
●​ Example: Rhino poaching in Kaziranga.
8.​ Unregulated Tourism and Infrastructure
●​ Unplanned tourism leads to pollution, trampling of habitats.

U
●​ Example: Mountains of waste in Rohtang Pass and Valley of Flowers due to unregulated
trekking.
9.​ Development Projects in Eco-sensitive Areas
d
●​ Roads, railways, hydroprojects fragment ecosystems.
●​ Examples: Char Dham Project (Himalayas) impacting biodiversity and increasing landslide
an
risks.

Indian Legislations & Policies for Biodiversity Conservation

St

1.​ Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Protects wild animals and plants; creates National Parks,
Sanctuaries, and Tiger Reserves.
2.​ Forest Conservation Act, 1980:Restricts diversion of forest land for non-forest use without
er

Centre's approval.
3.​ Environment Protection Act, 1986: Umbrella act for environmental protection post-Bhopal
disaster.
nd

4.​ Biological Diversity Act, 2002 : Implements CBD; regulates access to biological resources and
ensures benefit-sharing.
5.​ National Biodiversity Action Plan, 2008 (Updated 2014) : Framework to conserve biodiversity
aligned with Aichi Targets.
U

6.​ National Forest Policy, 1988 : Advocates 33% forest cover and participatory forest management
(JFM).
7.​ Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognizes traditional rights of forest dwellers; promotes sustainable
forest conservation.

International Conventions & Policies

1.​ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992: Legally binds nations to conserve biodiversity
and ensure fair benefit-sharing.
2.​ Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000: Regulates risks of GMOs to biodiversity and human
health.
3.​ Nagoya Protocol, 2010: Ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
4.​ CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), 1973: Regulates trade in
endangered wildlife.
5.​ RAMSAR Convention, 1971: Protects wetlands of international importance.

9
 6.​ Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme: UNESCO, 1971: Promotes conservation through
Biosphere Reserves.
7.​ Bonn Convention (CMS), 1979 : Conserves migratory species across countries.
8.​ Aichi Biodiversity Targets, 2010–2020 : 20 global targets under CBD for biodiversity conservation.

Way forward
●​ DNA Barcoding & AI for species identification and monitoring in real time.
●​ Biofencing using native plant barriers to prevent habitat encroachment.
●​ Eco-credits for individuals/communities conserving native species or habitats.
●​ Drone-based Surveillance to track poaching and deforestation in biodiversity hotspots.

C
●​ Vertical Forests in urban areas to support native pollinators and microhabitats.
●​ Promote afforestation and reduce deforestation.

PS
●​ Enforce wildlife protection laws strictly.
●​ Raise public awareness through education and eco-tourism.

Protecting biodiversity is essential for ecological stability, climate resilience, and human well-being.

U
Sustainable actions today ensure the survival of species and natural systems for future generations.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

d
Need for the Act
●​ To implement India’s obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992.
an
●​ Prevent bio-piracy (e.g., neem, turmeric, basmati cases).
●​ Ensure equitable sharing of benefits from the use of bio-resources.
●​ Recognize and protect the traditional knowledge systems of local and tribal communities.
Features
St

●​ Three-tier Institutional Structure:

1.​ National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
2.​ State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)
er

3.​ Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level

●​ Mandates Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanisms for equitable distribution of benefits.
●​ Requires the preparation of People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) by BMCs to document local
nd

biodiversity and knowledge.

●​ Covers biological resources and associated traditional knowledge, excluding human genetic
material.
U

Challenges
●​ Implementation Gaps: Weak enforcement at the state and local levels.
●​ Incomplete and outdated PBRs: Many BMCs lack proper documentation.
●​ Low Community Participation: Limited awareness among local users and custodians of traditional
knowledge.
●​ Continued Bio-piracy: Legal and enforcement limitations in transnational contexts.
●​ Overlap and conflicts with other laws (e.g., Forest Rights Act, Seed Act, IPR laws).
●​ Private sector concerns due to procedural delays and fear of penalties.
Way Forward
●​ Strengthen BMCs with funding, training, and institutional support.
●​ Digitize and update PBRs with community involvement.
●​ Promote industry-NBA collaboration for smoother ABS compliance and innovation.
●​ Launch mass awareness campaigns targeting rural and tribal communities.
●​ Use technology (AI, GIS) for biodiversity mapping and ABS monitoring.
●​ Build capacity for international cooperation to address bio-piracy

10
Recent Amendments in the Biological Diversity Act, 2023
●​ The Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023, introduced to address contemporary challenges
and streamline biodiversity governance, brought significant changes to the Biological Diversity Act,
2002. Below is a summary of the key amendments:

Amendment Details

●​ Criminal penalties (imprisonment) replaced with fines ranging from ₹1

Decriminalizatio lakh to ₹50 lakh.

C
n of Offenses ●​ Additional penalties of up to ₹1 crore can be imposed by an adjudicating
officer.

PS
Exemptions for ●​ Registered AYUSH practitioners and entities using codified traditional
AYUSH knowledge (e.g., Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani) are exempt from prior
Practitioners approval requirements for accessing biological resources.

U
Simplification of ●​ Indian entities accessing biological resources for research or patents face
Access and reduced regulatory burdens.
Benefit Sharing ●​ Dual approvals for transferring research results removed; prior approval
(ABS) still required for commercialization.
d
Encouragement
an
●​ Promotes cultivation of medicinal plants to reduce pressure on wild
of Medicinal
species.
Plant Cultivation
St

●​ Fast-tracks patent applications and facilitates collaborative research and

Ease of Doing
investments in biodiversity-related industries like pharmaceuticals and
Business
agriculture.
er

Codified ●​ Introduced a definition for "Codified Traditional Knowledge" linked to

Traditional authoritative texts like Ayurveda, focusing on specific biological
nd

Knowledge resources.

Biodiversity Conservation – Wetlands

U

What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of wetland conservation.
Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India. [10M](2018)
Comment on the National Wetland Conservation Programme initiated by the Government of India and
name a few India’s wetlands of international importance included in the Ramsar Sites. [15M] (2023)

Wetlands- Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, where the water table is
at/near the surface or land is covered by shallow water.

Role and Importance of Wetlands

Environmental
●​ Biodiversity hotspot; act as edge ecosystems -Siberian crane in Keoladeo, migratory birds in
Chilika.
●​ Aquifer recharge.
●​ Support biogeochemical cycles – water, carbon, nitrogen.

11
 ●​ Flood control – slow runoff water.
●​ Erosion control – buffer wave action.
●​ Natural water purification – filter nutrients, sediments.
●​ Water source for household, agriculture, industries.
Economic
●​ Eco-Tourism: Keoladeo National Park attracts birdwatchers, supporting local tourism and jobs.
●​ Fisheries: Chilika Lake sustains thousands of fisherfolk, boosting the regional economy.

Wise Use Principle

●​ The Wise Use Principle is the central philosophy of the Ramsar Convention (1971) for wetland

C
conservation and sustainable management.
●​ “Wise use” means the sustainable utilization of wetlands for the benefit of humankind in a

PS
way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem.

Challenges Faced by Wetlands

●​ Urbanization & Land Reclamation: Loktak Lake (Manipur) is threatened by settlements and

U
infrastructure expansion.
●​ Invasive Species: Water hyacinth in Vembanad Lake (Kerala) hampers navigation and chokes
native biodiversity.
●​ Agricultural Conversion: Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh) has seen wetlands drained for paddy and
d
aquaculture.
an
●​ Pollution: Deepor Beel (Assam) is polluted by urban waste and industrial effluents, including heavy
metals.
●​ Dredging: Chilika Lake (Odisha) experienced ecological imbalance due to dredging for navigation
and tourism.
St

Wetlands Conservation and Management Rules, 2017

Applies to Ramsar sites, and other wetlands notified by Centre/States/UTs.
er

●​ Protected Areas/CRZ areas excluded.

Institutional Setup:
●​ State Wetland Authority (SWA): Chaired by the State Environment Minister.
nd

○​ Includes experts; aided by Technical & Grievance Committees.

●​ National Wetlands Committee: Replaces CWRA.
●​ Portal for transparency & data sharing.
U

The National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) is a Government of India initiative

launched in 1985-86 to protect and manage wetlands, which are vital ecosystem
Objectives of the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)
1.​ Identification and Mapping → To identify wetlands of national importance and prepare
detailed inventories across states and UTs.
2.​ Conservation and Ecological Restoration → To promote conservation measures for
maintaining ecological character and hydrological regimes of wetlands.
3.​ Preventing Degradation → To monitor and control activities that may lead to degradation
such as pollution, encroachment, and unregulated land use.
4.​ Promoting Research and Monitoring → To support research studies on wetland ecology,
biodiversity, and socio-economic linkages for informed management.
5.​ Community Participation and Awareness → To involve local communities in protection
and management through education, outreach, and capacity-building.

12
 6.​ Integration with Development Planning → To integrate wetland conservation into regional
and national land use and development planning.
7.​ Support State Initiatives → To assist states in the formulation and implementation of
site-specific management action plans.

Way Forward (WF)

●​ Mass awareness through education and citizen participation.
●​ Strengthen data collection and digital monitoring. Example: ISRO’s National Wetland Atlas (based
on satellite data).

C
●​ Enforce 2017 Wetland Rules effectively.
●​ Promote eco-sensitive development near wetlands.

PS
Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant plant communities found in intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical
coastlines, growing in brackish water with muddy/silty soil.

U
Importance of Mangroves
1.​ Coastal Protection – Buffer against cyclones, storms, and coastal erosion (e.g., Sundarbans
during Cyclone Amphan).
2.​ Carbon Sequestration – High carbon storage capacity in biomass and soil; act as blue carbon
d
sinks.
3.​ Biodiversity Hotspots – Home to species like Royal Bengal tiger, mudskippers, saltwater
an
crocodiles.
4.​ Livelihoods – Supports fisheries, honey collection, eco-tourism.
5.​ Water Filtration – Trap sediments and pollutants; purify water naturally.
St

Threats to Mangroves
1.​ Encroachment for Agriculture & Aquaculture – Shrimp farming leads to wetland destruction.
2.​ Urbanization & Tourism – Real estate near coastlines destroys mangrove cover.
er

3.​ Pollution – Industrial and domestic effluents harm mangrove health.

4.​ Climate Change – Rising sea levels and altered salinity impact regeneration.
5.​ Overexploitation – Unregulated wood harvesting and fuelwood collection.
nd

Indian Initiatives
1.​ MISHTI Scheme (2023) – Mangrove plantation via MGNREGS & CAMPA Fund.
2.​ CRZ Notification (Coastal Regulation Zone) – Protects 500m from High Tide Line; restricts
U

destructive activity.
3.​ Mangroves for the Future (MFF) – Regional initiative for sustainable coastal development.
4.​ Eco-Development Committees & Van Samrakshan Samitis – Community-driven mangrove
protection in Andhra Pradesh.
5.​ Magical Mangroves Campaign – Awareness initiative.
Global Initiatives
1.​ Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971) – Includes protection of mangrove wetlands.
2.​ UNEP's Blue Carbon Initiative – Recognizes mangroves as vital blue carbon ecosystems.
3.​ CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) – Promotes conservation of mangrove biodiversity.
4.​ UN SDG 14 (Life Below Water) – Calls for sustainable use of coastal and marine ecosystems.
Way Forward
1.​ Tightening Environmental Regulations → Enforce robust legal measures to prevent mangrove
loss due to pollution, deforestation, and unplanned coastal activities.
2.​ Empowering Local Communities → Involve coastal populations in conservation via community
stewardship models (e.g., “Adopt-a-Mangrove”), ensuring protection and sustainable upkeep.

13
 3.​ Leveraging Science & Innovation → Promote research into phytoremediation, medicinal potential,
and traditional uses of mangroves; deploy AI and drones for real-time monitoring and enforcement.
4.​ Ecological Restoration Initiatives → Undertake bio-restoration using native and diverse
mangrove species to improve resilience to salinity and climate change.
5.​ Greener Coastal Infrastructure → Integrate mangrove zones into coastal land-use planning;
regulate shrimp farming and promote eco-sensitive development along the shoreline.
6.​ Global Partnerships for Conservation → Enhance collaboration through platforms like the
Ramsar Convention, Blue Carbon Initiative, and Mangroves for the Future (MFF) for
technology transfer and knowledge exchange.

C
Mangroves act as natural coastal shields, protecting shorelines from erosion, storms, and rising seas.
Their conservation is vital for biodiversity, climate resilience, and sustaining coastal livelihoods.

PS
Biodiversity Conservation – Coastal Areas
Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment.
Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples. [10M] (2019)

U
Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management
techniques for combating the hazard? [15M] (2022)
d
Coastal Erosion in India
Coastal erosion refers to the gradual wearing away of land along the shoreline due to the constant action of
an
sea waves, tides, and currents. It leads to the loss of landmass, threatening human settlements,
biodiversity, and economic assets along the coast.
St

Current Status
●​ India’s 7,500 km coastline acts as a natural buffer but is increasingly under stress due to both
natural and human-induced changes.
er

●​ As per the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR):

○​ 33.6% of India's coastline is undergoing erosion.
○​ 26.9% shows accretion (land build-up).
nd

○​ 39.5% remains stable.

Causes of Coastal Erosion

U

Natural Factors
●​ Sea Level Rise – Climate change is submerging parts of the Sundarbans delta.
●​ Loss of Mangrove Buffers – Mangrove loss in Odisha has increased cyclone damage.
●​ Storm Surges & Cyclones – Cyclone Amphan (2020) caused massive erosion in West Bengal.
●​ Wave & Tidal Action – Continuous wave erosion affects coastal villages.
●​ Monsoonal Patterns – Intense monsoons shift sediment along Kerala’s coastline.
Human-Induced Causes
●​ Sand Mining – Illegal mining along the Narmada and Godavari deltas worsens erosion.
●​ Port/Seawall Construction –Ports altered sediment flow, eroding nearby shores.
●​ Dredging – Mangalore harbour dredging disturbed estuarine balance.
●​ River Dams – Farakka Barrage reduced sediment reaching the Ganga delta.
●​ Urbanisation & Tourism – Coastal development in Goa has disturbed dune ecosystems.
Steps Taken by Government
●​ Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019:
○​ Defines No-Development Zones (NDZ).
○​ Restricts construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas.
14
 ●​ Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs):
○​ Developed by coastal states for erosion-prone zones.
●​ K-SHORE Project:
○​ Kerala's initiative with World Bank assistance for sustainable shoreline protection.
●​ Coastal Management Information System (CMIS):
○​ Centralized data platform by INCOIS and MoES for erosion monitoring.
●​ ICZM Project (Integrated Coastal Zone Management):
○​ Piloted in Gujarat, Odisha, and West Bengal for sustainable coastal ecosystem
development.
●​ Use of geo-synthetic tubes, artificial reefs, and soft engineering in vulnerable stretches.

C
Solutions
●​ Community-based erosion management: Involving local stakeholders in monitoring and

PS
conservation.
●​ AI-enabled real-time erosion tracking: For faster response and data analysis.
●​ Nature-based solutions:
○​ Mangrove afforestation

U
○​ Sand dune stabilization
○​ Coral reef restoration for wave energy absorption.
●​ Soft engineering techniques:
○​ Beach nourishment (adding sand to eroding beaches).
d
○​ Bio-shields using native vegetation.
●​ Localized shoreline strategies considering micro-geographical changes rather than
an
one-size-fits-all solutions.
Way Forward
1.​ Integrate coastal erosion planning into urban and infrastructure policies.
St

2.​ Update CRZ maps with scientific inputs and community feedback.
3.​ Promote eco-sensitive tourism in coastal zones.
4.​ Enhance research funding on sediment dynamics and erosion forecasting.
er

5.​ Cross-sector coordination between environment, water resources, and housing ministries.
6.​ Adopt global best practices through collaborations (e.g., Blue Carbon Initiative, UN Ocean
Decade).
nd

7.​ Shailesh Nayak Committee

●​ Empower State governments to clear projects in CRZ-II (urban) and CRZ-III (rural) areas.
●​ Reduce No Development Zone (NDZ) in CRZ-III from 200m to 50m to support rural
livelihoods.
U

●​ Allow eco-tourism infrastructure in CRZ-III to promote sustainable coastal development.

●​ Use the hazard line only for disaster risk planning, not for restricting development.

Coastal erosion in India poses a serious threat to livelihoods, infrastructure, and ecosystems along
vulnerable [Link], sustainable coastal zone management is essential to balance development
with environmental protection.

15
 U
nd
er
St
an
d
U
PS
C

16
 Environmental pollution
Enumerate the National Water Policy of India. Taking river Ganges as an example, discuss the
strategies which may be adopted for river water pollution control and management. What are the legal
provisions for management and handling of hazardous wastes in India?[UPSC 2013/10m]

What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are
continuously being generated? How do we safely remove the toxic wastes that have been
accumulating in our habitable environment? [UPSC2018/ 10m]

C
What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is pollution
particularly harmful for a country like India?[UPSC 2023/10m]

PS
Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various
mitigation measures to deal with the problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.
[UPSC 2024/10m]

U
Pollution may be defined as the addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result of human
activities. The agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants.

Air Pollution
d
As per WHO- Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical
an
or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
Current situation
●​ World Bank’s “Cleaner Air is Within Reach by 2040” (Mar 2025): Estimates 5.7 million annual
St

outdoor-pollution deaths, costing ~5 % of global GDP.

●​ First Global Assessment of Air‑Quality Legislation (GAAPL, 2021): Only ~12% of cities globally
meet WHO air‑quality standards; highlights need for enforceable legal frameworks.
er

●​ World Air Quality Report 2024:

○​ India ranked as the 5th most polluted country in 2024, improving slightly from 3rd place
in 2023.
nd

○​ Major contributors include vehicular emissions, industrial outputs, crop residue burning
(especially in Northern India), construction dust, and biomass combustion.
○​ Crop stubble burning, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, contributed 60%
of PM₂.₅ pollution during peak winter months.
U

○​ Delhi remained the most polluted capital city globally for the sixth consecutive year.
○​ Byrnihat (Assam–Meghalaya border) was the most polluted city globally
Causes
●​ Vehicular Emissions - Pollutants emitted: Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
●​ Industrial Emissions - Industries like iron and steel, sugar, paper, cement, fertiliser, copper, and
aluminium are major contributors to air pollutants such as suspended particulate matter (SPM),
sulfur oxides (SOX), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and carbon dioxide (CO₂).
●​ Burning of Fossil Fuels - Coal-fired power stations contribute over 50% of India’s electricity but
emit high levels of SO₂ and PM2.5
●​ Biomass Burning - eg, stubble burning issue in Punjab and Haryana.
●​ Construction and Demolition Activities- eg, pollutants like silica dusts are emitted.
●​ Usage of conventional sources for cooking eg, wood and cow dung burning, causing indoor
pollution.

17
 ●​ Waste Burning and Landfills- eg, The Ghazipur landfill in Delhi often catches fire, emitting toxic
smoke visible for miles.
●​ Natural Causes- eg, Volcanic eruptions, wildfires (e.g., in Australia or California), and pollens in
spring.
●​ Improper use of Pyrolysis- . While pyrolysis is a safer technique than burning, pyrolysis leaves
fine carbon matter, pyro gas and oil as residue.
●​ Fuel Adulteration- Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced kerosene. Adulterated fuel
increases emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter.
Steps taken
●​ National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)-2019: Reduce PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ concentrations by 40% by

C
2026 (baseline: 2017).
●​ Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)-NCR & Delhi: Emergency plan to control pollution based
on AQI levels.

PS
●​ Installation of Flue-Gas Desulfurization (FGD) systems to reduce SO₂.
●​ Promotion of EVs: Subsidies for electric vehicles and charging infrastructure.
●​ Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) standards enforced from April 1, 2020: Sulfur content reduced in fuel
(from 50 ppm to 10 ppm).

U
●​ Ethanol blending with petrol- set a new target to make 30% by 2030, already achieved 20%
blending ahead of time.
●​ Stubble Burning Management
d
○​ Happy Seeder, Super Seeder machines (no-burn residue management).
○​ Bio-decomposers (e.g., PUSA decomposer) sprayed to accelerate decomposition of crop
an
stubble.
●​ Household Air Pollution Mitigation- PM Ujjwala Yojana: Free LPG connections to reduce indoor
pollution from biomass.
St

●​ Public Awareness and Campaigns- Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan: Rankings for cities based on air
quality improvements; Mobile apps like SAMEER by CPCB to report and track air pollution.
●​ International collab-
er

○​ India-Switzerland Collaboration (with IQAir & UNEP): Annual World Air Quality Report
featuring Indian cities prominently.
○​ Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) in which India is a partner country.
nd

Way forward
1.​ Scale up the NCAP beyond current cities and include rural hotspots.
2.​ Make emission reduction targets legally binding, not just aspirational.
U

3.​ Publicly share real-time source apportionment studies to guide policy at the local level.
4.​ Promote no-burn agriculture.
5.​ Develop farmer-led circular economy models.
6.​ Involve schools, RWAs, and youth groups in local monitoring and green drives.
7.​ Promote low-emission lifestyle choices: carpooling, cleaner fuels, energy efficiency.

Case study: From Grey to Blue- How Beijing Cut Its PM₂.₅ by Over 50% in Just 7 Years

●​ Between 2013 and 2020, Beijing significantly reduced its air pollution by shutting down coal-fired
power plants, switching to cleaner energy, and enforcing strict industrial emission controls.
●​ The city also removed millions of older vehicles and promoted public transport to cut vehicular
emissions.

18
Conclusion- Clean air will define the health and sustainability of future generations. Investing in innovation,
clean energy, and collective action today ensures a breathable tomorrow. “Clean air is a basic necessity.
Let us not treat it like a luxury.” - Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India.

Smog

Discuss in detail the photochemical smog emphasizing its formation, effects and mitigation. Explain the
1999 Gothenburg Protocol (2022;10)

●​ The word smog is derived from smoke and fog Caused by the burning of coal, vehicular emission

C
and industrial fumes (primary pollutants).
●​ It contains soot particulates like smoke, ozone (O3), carbon monoxide(CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2),

PS
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) & others.
●​ Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide.
Chemically it is a reducing mixture and so it is also called as reducing smog.
●​ Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. The main components of the

U
photochemical smog result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides produced by automobiles and factories.
●​ Photochemical smog has high concentration of oxidising agents and is, therefore, called as
oxidising smog. The common components of photochemical smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein,
d
formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
an
St
er
nd
U

Effect of Smog
●​ Health Effects: Ozone and PAN irritate the eyes, while ozone and nitric oxide affect the nose and
throat. High levels cause headaches, chest pain, throat dryness, coughing, and breathing
difficulties.
●​ Environmental & Material Damage: Leads to rubber deterioration, plant damage, and corrosion of
metals, stone, building materials, and painted surfaces.

19
Controlling smog
●​ Reduce Primary Pollutants: Controlling NO₂ and hydrocarbons helps minimize secondary
pollutants like ozone and PAN.
●​ Use of Catalytic Converters: Installed in vehicles to prevent nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon
emissions.
●​ Plant-Based Absorption: Trees like Pinus, Juniperus, Quercus, Pyrus, and Vitis help absorb
nitrogen oxides, aiding in smog reduction.

Soil Pollution
As per UNDRR - Soil pollution refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of place and/or

C
present in a soil at higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted
organism.

PS
Soil pollution poses a serious risk to human health through direct contact (dermal exposure, inhalation of
polluted soil particles, intentional ingestion of polluted soil) or indirectly, by consuming plants or animals
that have accumulated significant amounts of soil contaminants.

U
Current situation
●​ UNESCO warned that 90% of soil could be affected by 2050.
●​ UNESCO- World Atlas of desertification states that 75% of soil is already degraded around the globe.
d
●​ Population exposure to heavy-metal contaminated soil is projected to increase with intensifying
mining and industrial activity .
an
●​ In India’s Jojari River basin, heavy metals like lead and cadmium have contaminated farmland soil,
turning 100-150 km of agricultural land barren and threatening the health of over 1.6 million people.
Causes
St

1.​ Industrial Waste Disposal- In Kanpur (India), tanneries release chromium into nearby soil and water
bodies, contaminating agricultural land.
2.​ Agrochemical overuse- Overuse of synthetic inputs in farming leads to accumulation of toxic
er

residues in soil.
3.​ Improper Solid Waste Management- The Bandhwari landfill near Gurgaon leaks leachate into the
soil, contaminating surrounding land and groundwater with heavy metals.
nd

4.​ Oil Spills and Hydrocarbon Contamination- eg, Assam oil well blowout (2020) resulted in local soil
and water pollution in the region.
5.​ Mining Activities- Open-pit mining disturbs soil layers and leaves behind toxic tailings and heavy
U

metals.
6.​ Livestock Waste and Sewage Sludge- In urban fringes of Indian cities, open defecation and sewage
dumping pollute soil with biological waste and bacteria.
Steps Taken
1.​ Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016-Controls
handling, storage, treatment, and disposal of industrial and electronic waste.
2.​ The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) monitors industrial compliance and landfill standards.
3.​ Promotion of Organic and Natural Farming-eg, Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):
Promotes organic farming through farmer clusters and certification.
4.​ Several hazardous pesticides (e.g., DDT, Aldrin, Endosulfan) have been banned or restricted.
5.​ Solid and Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016)- Regulate segregation, recycling, and disposal
of waste to prevent soil contamination.
6.​ Bio-remediation and Phytoremediation Projects- Use of plants and microbes to clean up
contaminated soil (especially around industrial zones) eg, pilot projects are being installed in Ganga
basin.
20
Way forward
1.​ Develop a National Soil Pollution Database using satellite mapping, sensors, and on-ground testing.
2.​ Scale up organic, natural, and regenerative farming to reduce chemical dependence.
3.​ Incentivize biofertilisers, composting, and crop rotation through direct subsidies.
4.​ Penalize polluters and implement the “Polluter Pays” principle more effectively.
5.​ Prioritize high-risk zones like landfills, mining areas, and industrial corridors.
6.​ Promote Research and Innovation- Encourage development of low-cost soil testing kits,
bio-remediation microbes, and smart composting tech.
Soil pollution silently poisons our food, water, and future beneath our [Link] soil today is protecting
life and sustainability for generations to come.

C
Water Pollution

PS
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater, and
streams) with harmful substances like chemicals, waste, or microorganisms that degrade water quality and
make it unsafe for human use, aquatic life, and the environment.
Current situation

U
●​ At the national level, the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) by NITI Aayog has revealed
that over 70% of India’s water supply is contaminated, posing serious health and environmental
risks. d
●​ On the global stage, India ranks 120th out of 122 countries in WaterAid’s Water Quality Index.
Measuring Pollution Load in Water
an
●​ Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
○​ Indicates the level of free oxygen in water, essential for aquatic life.
○​ Influenced by surface turbulence, photosynthesis, oxygen consumption, and
St

organic/inorganic waste.
○​ DO < 8.0 mg/L: Contaminated water.
○​ DO < 4.0 mg/L: Highly polluted water.
er

●​ Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)[CSE 2017]

○​ Measures oxygen consumption by microorganisms decomposing organic matter under
aerobic conditions.
nd

○​ Higher BOD indicates high pollution and lower DO levels.

●​ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
○​ Measures oxygen needed to oxidize both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic
matter, along with oxidizable inorganic compounds.
U

○​ Provides a more accurate assessment of water pollution than BOD.

Causes
1.​ Industrial Waste Discharge- The Yamuna River near Delhi receives heavy metal-laden wastewater
from industries in Sonipat and Panipat.
2.​ Domestic Sewage and Untreated Wastewater- In cities like Varanasi, sewage directly enters the
Ganga River, reducing its water quality.
3.​ Agricultural Runoff- Runoff in Punjab and Haryana causes nitrate contamination in rivers and
groundwater.
4.​ Solid Waste Dumping- The Mithi River in Mumbai is heavily polluted with municipal garbage and
industrial debris.
5.​ Oil Spills and Marine Dumping- The Chennai Ennore oil spill (2017) contaminated coastal waters
and harmed marine life.
6.​ Unplanned Urbanization and Encroachments- Bellandur Lake in Bengaluru faces frequent frothing
and fire incidents due to untreated inflow.

21
Steps taken
1.​ National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)- sewage treatment, Promoting river surface cleaning and
public awareness.
2.​ National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)- Aims to reduce pollution in 38 major rivers by: Treating
municipal sewage; Promoting low-cost sanitation; Managing industrial effluents.
3.​ Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974- Empowers the Central and State Pollution
Control Boards (CPCB/SPCBs) to monitor and penalize violators.
4.​ Regulation of Industrial Effluents- Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) norms for highly polluting industries
(e.g., textiles, tanneries).
5.​ Monitoring & Real-Time Water Quality Data- eg, Real-time Water Quality Monitoring Stations.

C
6.​ Community and NGO Involvement- Engaging citizens in cleaning rivers, lakes, and ponds (e.g., local
lake cleaning initiatives).

PS
7.​ The Supreme Court and National Green Tribunal (NGT) have passed multiple orders directing
stricter enforcement, clean-up efforts, and penalties on polluters.
Way forward
1.​ Promote Decentralized Treatment: Support on-site wastewater treatment systems for smaller

U
towns and villages.
2.​ Regular environmental audits for high water-consuming industries to ensure compliance.
3.​ Provide more autonomy, staff, and resources to the CPCB and SPCBs for effective oversight.
d
4.​ Use IoT and AI to monitor discharge in real-time and alert authorities to violations.
5.​ Provide impetus towards newer generation tech like Nano Bubble technology that uses tiny bubbles
an
to improve water quality.
6.​ Behaviour Change- Encourage community groups to report pollution or illegal discharges into water
bodies.
St

GANGA PRAHARI - GUARDIANS OF THE GANGA (NITI Aayog best practise)

er

Establishment of a trained cadre of local communities for institutionalizing the conservation efforts of
river Ganga at the grassroots level.
nd

Clean water must be seen not just as a service but as a sacred trust. The fight against water pollution is not
just a technological or administrative challenge, it is a moral and ecological responsibility.
U

Eutrophication and Dead Zones

Declining Oxygen Levels in Oceans
●​ According to IUCN, global ocean oxygen levels dropped by 2% between 1960 and 2010 due to
eutrophication, nitrogen deposition (from fossil fuel burning), and ocean warming.
●​ Warmer water holds less oxygen and causes stratification, preventing oxygen-rich deeper waters
from mixing with surface layers.
●​ Ice melt and glacial runoff reduce salinity, further intensifying stratification reducing
phytoplankton photosynthesis in surface waters.
Dead Zones
●​ Dead zones (hypoxic zones) are ocean areas with very low oxygen levels, making them
uninhabitable for most marine life.
●​ They form due to excess nutrients (from agricultural runoff, sewage, and pollution), leading to
algal blooms that deplete oxygen.
●​ Natural upwelling can create hypoxic zones, but human activities accelerate and expand them.

22
 ●​ Major dead zones include the Gulf of Mexico (linked to agricultural runoff) and the Gulf of
Oman (expanding rapidly).
Blue Tide
●​ Occurs along polluted coastlines with low oxygen and high nitrogen levels.
●​ Caused by bioluminescent dinoflagellates, making the sea glow deep blue.
●​ While small tides are harmless, larger ones affect deep-sea fishing.
Water Pollution Control Measures – Key Bioremediation Approaches:
1.​ Bioremediation: Use of living organisms, including genetically engineered microbes, to break down
biodegradable pollutants in soil or water.
2.​ In-Situ Methods:

C
●​ Bioventing (nutrients to boost bacterial activity),
●​ Biosparging (air injection to increase oxygen),
●​ Bioaugmentation (adding specialized microbes);

PS
●​ e.g., TERI’s Oilzapper degrades oil spills safely.
3.​ Ex-Situ Methods:
●​ Landfarming (aerated soil spreading),
●​ Bioreactors (controlled chambers),

U
●​ Composting (microbial degradation of organics like arsenic).
Other methods
●​ Phytoremediation: Use of plants for pollutant absorption (Phytoextraction), containment
d
(Phytostabilization), and breakdown (Phytodegradation); roots can also filter water (Rhizofiltration).
●​ Mycoremediation: Fungi like white-rot species release enzymes to decompose toxic compounds like
an
hydrocarbons.
●​ Vermiremediation: Earthworms naturally degrade and detoxify organic pollutants in soil.
●​ Bioleaching: Microbes like Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans extract or detoxify heavy metals from
St

contaminated areas.

Noise Pollution
er

As per the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, Noise pollution is considered as sound that
is either excessive in intensity or inappropriate in time and place, causing adverse effects on health and
well-being.
nd

Causes
1.​ Transportation Sources- Honking, engine noise, modified exhausts, and tire friction—especially in
congested urban areas.
U

2.​ Industrial and Construction Activities- Drilling, crushing, welding, and assembly-line operations in
factories.
3.​ Urbanization and Crowded Living Conditions- High population density increases background noise
(vehicles, vendors, music, conversations).
4.​ Loudspeakers and Public Address Systems.
Steps taken
1.​ Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000-
●​ Issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
●​ Defines ambient noise limits for industrial, commercial, residential, and silent zones.
●​ Bans loudspeaker use between 10 PM and 6 AM, except with special permission.
2.​ Zoning and Urban Planning-
●​ Designation of silent zones near hospitals, schools, and courts (within 100 meters).
●​ Buffer zones and green belts around industrial areas to reduce sound travel.

23
 3.​ Judicial Interventions- Monitoring during festivals like Diwali and Ganesh Chaturthi.
4.​ Monitoring and Technology- eg, Development of mobile apps for reporting noise violations
(e.g.,"Sameer" by CPCB).
5.​ Mandatory use of noise barriers around construction sites.

Way Forward
1.​ Empower Pollution Control Boards (CPCB/SPCBs) with real-time noise monitoring tools and
legal backing.
2.​ On-the-spot fines for violators using loudspeakers, high-decibel firecrackers, and banned
construction practices.

C
3.​ Use of IoT, AI, and GIS mapping to identify noise hotspots and predict risk trends.
4.​ Encourage “quiet urban design”: better traffic planning, smoother road surfaces, and strategic
tree planting.

PS
5.​ Inclusion of noise literacy in school curriculums.
6.​ Promote the concept of "Silent Festivals" and "No Horn Zones".
7.​ Update noise standards under the Environment Protection Act in line with WHO guidelines.
8.​ Active involvement of NGOs like Awaaz Foundation in Mumbai in awareness campaigns.

U
Conclusion - The future will be driven by smart cities and green tech, tackling noise pollution will
transform our urban soundscapes into havens of tranquility where innovation meets silence for
d
healthier lives.
an
Plastic Pollution
Plastic pollution refers to the presence and accumulation of plastic products and particles in the
environment, especially in natural habitats like oceans, rivers, and land, where they cause harmful effects
St

to wildlife, ecosystems, and human health.

Current situation
●​ A recent study in THE NATURE suggests that India is the largest contributor to plastic pollution,
er

accounting for around 20% of global plastic waste.

●​ Around 3.4 million metric tonnes of plastic is generated annually in India (CPCB 2019-20).
●​ India’s per capita plastic consumption has grown to approximately 11 kg per year, and this number
nd

is expected to rise further with increasing industrialization and consumerism (CPCB 2019-20).
●​ Global plastic waste recycling rate is low at 9% as per NITI Aayog.
Causes
U

1.​ Excessive Use of Single-Use Plastics- Plastic bags, straws, water bottles, and packaging
materials are used once and discarded, often ending up in landfills or oceans.
2.​ Improper Waste Management-
●​ estimated 77% of the waste generated in Indian cities is dumped into open landfills without
being treated.
●​ Only 60% of the plastic waste generated is recycled, and this recycling is often done
inefficiently in the informal sector.
3.​ Industrial Plastic Production- Factories producing plastic products often discharge plastic pellets
(nurdles) or waste into nearby rivers, contributing to pollution.
4.​ Littering and Public Negligence
5.​ Lack of Awareness and Regulation Enforcement- Despite bans on plastic bags in many states,
weak enforcement means people still use and discard plastic freely.

24
Steps taken
1.​ Ban on Single-Use Plastics- India imposed a nationwide ban on single-use plastic items,
including cutlery, straws, plastic sticks, and packaging films.
2.​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)- Under Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016
(amended in 2022), producers, importers, and brand owners are responsible for collecting and
recycling the plastic they introduce into the market.
3.​ Plastic Waste Management Rules-
●​ Segregation of plastic waste at the source.
●​ Registration of plastic manufacturers and recyclers.
●​ Development of recycling infrastructure.

C
4.​ Development of Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) in line with NITI Aayog suggestion.
5.​ Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2025 (effective July 1, 2025): Require
barcodes, QR codes, or unique identifiers on plastic packaging, with transparency via a quarterly

PS
updated CPCB registry of compliant brands.
6.​ States like Sikkim, Maharashtra, and Himachal Pradesh have implemented strict local bans and
rules.

U
7.​ Promotion of Buyback models for plastic packaging- The Buyback Model is an emerging approach
to manage plastic waste, where the manufacturer or seller agrees to buy back the product or its
packaging after consumer use. This encourages responsible disposal and supports recycling and
reuse.
Way Forward
d
●​ Ensure strict implementation of bans on single-use plastics.
an
●​ Penalize non-compliance at manufacturing, retail, and consumer levels.
●​ Promote Circular Economy- Encourage recycling, reuse, and redesign of plastic products.
●​ Offer incentives and R&D support to startups and industries developing sustainable packaging
St

solutions.
●​ Formalize the Informal Sector- Integrate waste pickers into formal waste management systems.
●​ Encourage citizens to adopt zero-waste lifestyles.
er

●​ Use AI and blockchain to track plastic waste and improve EPR compliance.
●​ Set up more Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) and plastic recycling plants.
nd

MATERIALS RECOVERY FACILITY AT NITTE GRAM PANCHAYAT: Karnataka (NITI Aayog best
practise)
U

An innovative project that provides good waste management service and uses non-recyclable waste as a
raw material in cement factories.
It has been critical in increasing the quality of waste collected and reducing public littering.

"Plastic pollution is not just an environmental threat, it's a design flaw of the past. The future belongs to
smart materials, circular systems, and conscious choices that turn waste into worth."

Solid Waste
As per WHO, Solid waste refers to any type of garbage, trash, refuse or discarded material. It can be
categorized according to where the waste is generated, for example as municipal solid waste, health care
waste and e-waste.

25
Current situation
●​ India generated 170,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day (Annual report on SWM by CPCB
2020-21).
●​ Out of total waste generated 156,000 tonnes is collected out of which 54% is treated, and 24% is
deposited in landfills (Annual repost on SWM by CPCB 2020-21).
●​ Indian cities will generate approx 435 million tonnes of solid waste by 2050 (MoHUA 2021).
Causes of Solid waste generation in India
1.​ Population Growth- more population, more waste generation.
2.​ Urbanization- Urban areas produce over 60% of India’s total municipal solid waste (CPCB- 2020-21).
3.​ Consumerism- Rise of the middle class, increased consumption of packaged goods, electronics,

C
and disposables.​
4.​ Lack of Awareness & Behavioral Habits- Cultural tendency toward mixed waste dumping creates

PS
difficulty in segregation and proper management.
5.​ Inefficient Waste Collection & Segregation- Despite high collection coverage (~96%), source
segregation (dry/wet/hazardous) is poorly implemented (48%).
6.​ Lack of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Enforcement- Many manufacturers do not take

U
back or properly manage their post-consumer waste (esp. e-waste and plastics).
7.​ Unregulated Construction & Demolition (C&D) Activities- Large-scale urban infrastructure and
housing development produce massive C&D waste. Much of it is dumped illegally due to lack of
d
designated collection points.
Solid Waste Management
an
As per the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 (India), "The collection, segregation, storage,
transportation, processing, and disposal of solid waste in an environmentally sound manner."
Key Components of Solid Waste Management (as per the Rules):
St

●​ Collection – Door-to-door or community-level collection of waste from households, commercial

establishments, and institutions.
●​ Segregation – Separation of waste into biodegradable, non-biodegradable, domestic hazardous
er

waste, and recyclables at the source (i.e., household or business level).

●​ Storage – Temporary containment of segregated waste in color-coded bins or bags before pickup.
●​ Transportation – Moving the waste in covered vehicles to processing or disposal sites, ensuring no
nd

spillage or mixing.
●​ Processing – Includes:
○​ Composting, vermicomposting, or anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste.
U

○​ Recycling or reuse of dry/recyclable waste.

○​ Waste-to-energy for non-recyclables.
●​ Disposal – Final and scientific disposal of inert or residual waste in sanitary landfills after all
possible recovery.​

Solid Waste Management Techniques

Technique Description Key Features/Challenges

Open Dumps Waste left untreated in open Causes pollution, attracts pests, and spreads
areas. diseases.

Landfills Waste buried and covered Can be repurposed for land use (parks,
with soil after filling. parking lots).

26
 Sanitary Landfills Engineered landfills with Expensive but environmentally safer than
waste containment systems. open landfills.

Incineration Waste burned at high Reduces volume, but releases toxic gases
temperatures in large and ash.
furnaces.

Pyrolysis Thermal decomposition with Produces fuel, tar, and gas; alternative to
controlled oxygen levels. incineration.

C
Composting Organic waste decomposed Environmentally friendly but requires space
into nutrient-rich compost. and time.

PS
Waste-to-Energy Converts waste into Utilizes dry and wet waste for energy
(WTE) electricity, heat, compost, or production.
biogas.

U
Impediments in SWM
1.​ Lack of Source Segregation
2.​ Insufficient Waste Processing Infrastructure- Many cities lack adequate composting, recycling, and
d
waste-to-energy plants.
3.​ Overflowing Landfills & Lack of Scientific Disposal- Major landfills like Ghazipur (Delhi) and Deonar
an
(Mumbai) are over capacity and prone to fires and toxic leachate.
4.​ Weak Enforcement of Waste Management Rules.
5.​ Limited Financial and Technical Capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)- Most ULBs lack the
St

budget and trained personnel to manage modern waste systems.

6.​ Informal Sector Integration Challenges- India has a large informal recycling workforce of at least
80%(e.g., ragpickers, kabadiwalas).Inadequate Waste collection services- Irregular door-to-door
er

collection and lack of standardized practices across cities.

7.​ Irresponsible Behavioural Habits- mixing of different types of waste in the same dustbins.
nd

Steps Taken
1.​ Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016:
●​ Mandatory source segregation (wet, dry, hazardous).
U

●​ Decentralized waste processing.

●​ Involvement of the informal sector.
●​ Responsibilities assigned to generators, local bodies, manufacturers.
2.​ Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban (SBM-U)- Focus: 100% door-to-door collection, segregation, and
processing.
3.​ Biomining of Legacy Waste- Scientific treatment of old waste heaps at landfills to recover
compost, RDF, and recyclables. Eg, Delhi's Bhalswa, Okhla, and Ghazipur landfills are
undergoing biomining; target to remediate 30,000 tonnes per day by Dec 2026.
4.​ Waste-to-Energy (WtE) Plants
5.​ Infrastructure Development- Construction of composting plants, material recovery facilities
(MRFs), C&D waste plants, and sanitary landfills. Chandigarh operates a model integrated SWM
plant (composting + RDF).
6.​ Citizen Engagement & Behaviour Change Campaigns- Eg, "My City My Responsibility" in
cities like Mysuru and Varanasi have improved compliance and public participation.
7.​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for E-waste & Plastics- Mandates producers to collect
back their post-consumer waste
27
 8.​ Decentralized Processing- Pune, Maharashtra: SWaCH cooperative enables decentralized
composting and dry waste sorting at the ward level, employing thousands of informal waste workers
safely.
9.​ Scientific Landfilling for Residual Inert Waste- Bhuasuni Sanitary Landfill, Bhubaneswar:
Designed with leachate treatment, methane capture, and regular covering of waste to ensure safety.

Way Forward
●​ Universal Source Segregation- Make 3-bin segregation (wet, dry, hazardous) mandatory and
enforced in all urban and rural areas.
●​ Decentralized Waste Management

C
●​ Strengthen Circular Economy & Recycling
●​ Modernize Infrastructure- Upgrade Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs), Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
plants, and sanitary landfills.

PS
●​ Digitize SWM with tracking systems for waste collection and processing.
●​ Recognize and formalize the role of ragpickers and kabadiwalas.
●​ Stronger Policy Enforcement

U
Niti Aayog’s WASTE WISE CITIES

Ambikapur (Chhattisgarh): A true zero‑landfill model achieving nearly 100% coverage in segregation,
d
collection, processing, and scientific disposal through strong self-help group involvement.
an
Karad (Maharashtra): Achieved 100% separate collection of sanitary waste, then treated via co-located
biomedical facilities.

Alappuzha (Kerala): Notable for its decentralized, community-based waste processing.

St

Conclusion- Solid waste is not just a problem, it's a resource in disguise. With smart segregation,
er

tech-driven solutions, and citizen action, we can turn garbage into green gold.

E- Waste
nd

As per E-Waste Management Rules, 2016- "E-waste means waste electrical and electronic equipment,
whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded."
Current situation
U

●​ India- 3rd largest e-waste generator globally after China, USA.

●​ Approx. 57% of e-waste remains untreated annually in India.
●​ India witnessed 72.54% increase in e-waste generation over 5 years from 2019-20 to 2023-24.
Causes
1.​ Rapid Technological Advancements- New devices and upgrades launch frequently, making older
electronics obsolete quickly.
2.​ Consumerism and Lifestyle Changes- Households now have multiple TVs, laptops, tablets, and
appliances more than ever before.
3.​ Lack of Awareness on Disposal- Old chargers, phones, and batteries are often thrown in regular
trash or left unused in drawers.
4.​ Short Product Lifespan and Planned Obsolescence- Laptops and printers become non-functional
within 3–5 years, and repairs are often costlier than buying new.
5.​ Ineffective Formal Recycling Infrastructure- Over 95% of e-waste is handled by informal scrap
dealers who often burn components, releasing toxins.

28
 6.​ Lack of Strict Producer Responsibility Enforcement- Many brands do not effectively implement EPR
(Extended Producer Responsibility) norms.
Steps Taken
1.​ E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 (Amended in 2022)
●​ Defines roles for manufacturers, producers, consumers, and recyclers.
●​ Introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): producers must collect and recycle a
specified amount of e-waste.
●​ Prohibits informal handling and promotes environmentally sound disposal.
2.​ E-Waste Collection Mechanisms- Establishment of Authorized Collection Centers, take-back
systems, and drop-off points by major electronics brands.

C
3.​ Development of Formal Recycling Infrastructure- Delhi is setting up India’s first e-waste eco-park,
with processing capacity of over 50,000 tonnes annually.

PS
4.​ Import Control- Banned the import of e-waste from other countries under the Hazardous and Other
Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016.
5.​ Local Initiatives- States like Kerala and Maharashtra have launched buyback schemes and e-waste
incentives for households.

U
6.​ Battery Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2025: Introduce QR or barcode labelling carrying
EPR registration details to enhance traceability and accountability in battery recycling.
7.​ Biomedical Waste (CBWTDF) Guidelines, April 2025: Set technical norms and inspection protocols
d
for new and expanding biomedical waste treatment and disposal facilities.
Way Forward
an
●​ Ensure strict compliance with E-Waste Management Rules and penalties for violations.
●​ Use digital tools and blockchain for transparent tracking of e-waste collection and recycling.
●​ Promote state-of-the-art recycling technologies that minimize environmental harm.
St

●​ Integrate and Support Informal Sector- Train and formally integrate informal e-waste workers into
the system.
●​ Incentivize consumers through buy-back programs, drop-off points, and easy access to collection
er

centers.

“In a world racing towards digital futures, e-waste must become a resource, not a burden. With smart
nd

recycling, circular designs, and empowered communities, we can turn yesterday’s gadgets into tomorrow’s
innovations , building a cleaner, tech-savvy planet.”

Oil Spills
U

An oil spill is the accidental or deliberate release of petroleum onto sea or coastal waters, usually due to
tanker leaks, pipeline ruptures, or drilling accidents. It severely harms marine ecosystems, contaminates
shorelines, and poses health and economic risks.

Causes - Leakage during marine transport, Underground storage tank leaks , Offshore oil production
failures
Impact on Marine Life:
●​ Oxygen depletion: Oil forms a surface film, suffocating marine plants and animals.
●​ Toxic effects: Fish, shellfish, and plankton die due to poisoning and metabolic disorders.
●​ Food chain disruption: Birds and sea mammals consuming contaminated marine life are
poisoned.
Oil Spill Cleanup Methods:
●​ Bregoli: A paper industry by-product resembling sawdust absorbs oil.
●​ Oil Zapper: A microbial consortium designed to degrade hydrocarbons.

29
 ●​ Bioremediation: Use of oil-eating bacteria to break down pollutants.

Radioactive Pollution
Key Terminologies:
●​ Radioactivity: Spontaneous emission of alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) rays from atomic
nuclei.
●​ Radioactive Pollution: Increased nuclear radiation in the environment, posing risks to life forms.
●​ Radioactive Contamination: Unintended presence of radioactive substances in solids, liquids, or
gases.
Sources of Radiation:

C
●​ Natural Sources: Cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation from Uranium-238, Thorium-232, Radium-224,
Potassium-40, Carbon-14.

PS
●​ Artificial Sources:
○​ Nuclear power plant leaks, improper disposal of radioactive materials.
○​ Uranium & thorium mining (e.g., monazite is the ore of thorium).
○​ Medical exposure (X-rays, CT scans, chemotherapy).

U
○​ Nuclear reactors & laboratories emitting low-level radiation.

Impact of Radioactive Pollution

Effects of Ionizing Radiation:
d
●​ Highly damaging to living organisms by breaking chemical bonds and harming tissues.
an
●​ Short-term effects: Burns, metabolic impairment, tissue death, fatal exposure.
●​ Long-term effects: Increased risk of cancer, genetic mutations, reduced lifespan, developmental
disorders.
●​ Lethal at high doses, while low doses can lead to disorders, primarily cancer.
St

Biological Damage:
●​ Somatic Damage (Radiation Sickness): Affects body cells (non-reproductive), impacting only the
exposed individual.
er

●​ Genetic Damage: Affects reproductive cells, leading to mutations and hereditary disorders.
Measures to Control Radioactive Pollution
Global Initiatives:
nd

●​ Regulatory frameworks for nuclear safety and radiation monitoring networks.

●​ Safe disposal methods, including deep geological disposal and engineered containment facilities.
India’s Efforts:
U

●​ Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB): Monitors and regulates nuclear and radiation
activities.
●​ Environmental monitoring & nuclear waste management: Ensures safe handling & disposal of
radioactive waste.

Radioactive pollution poses long-lasting threats to human health, ecosystems, and genetic stability due to
its persistent and invisible nature. Preventive regulation, safe disposal, and strict monitoring are crucial to
minimizing its irreversible impact.
​

30
 Environmental Degradation and Conservation
“All our efforts to defeat poverty and pursue sustainable development will be in vain if environmental
degradation and natural resource depletion continue unabated.”- Kofi Anan
“The earth is not ours but something we hold in trust for future generations.”
According to UNDRR (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction), environmental degradation
is the reduction of the environment's capacity to meet social and ecological objectives and needs.
Causes of Environmental Degradation
●​ Deforestation- driven by logging, agriculture expansion, infrastructure projects eg, Amazon

C
Rainforest (Brazil, 2024–2025): Over 13,000 km² of forest was lost in 2024 alone,(Global Forest
Watch, 2024-25) largely due to cattle ranching, soya farming, and illegal logging.
●​ Pollution- eg, Air Pollution in Delhi- falls into the “severe” category.

PS
●​ Climate Change- Emission of greenhouse gases (mainly CO₂, CH₄) from fossil fuels, agriculture,
and deforestation. Eg, extreme heat events in the Horn of Africa.
●​ Overpopulation and Urbanization- Rising human population increases demand for resources like
water, land, and energy, leading to stress on ecosystems eg, Jakarta, Indonesia, faces severe land

U
subsidence and flooding due to overpopulation, this has prompted plans to relocate the capital to
Nusantara on Borneo Island.
●​ Overexploitation of Natural Resources- Unsustainable mining, overfishing, groundwater depletion,
d
and fossil fuel extraction.
●​ Rapid Industrialisation- leading to emission of toxic substances in the environment.
an
●​ Unsustainable Agriculture- eg, The Aral Sea, once one of the largest lakes, has almost dried up
due to irrigation for cotton farming in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, causing dust storms and loss of
livelihoods.
St

●​ Waste Mismanagement- Poor handling of plastic waste, electronic waste, and industrial waste.
Consequences of Environmental Degradation
●​ Climate Disruption & Extreme Weather- eg, Antarctic sea ice hit a 47‑year low as of 1 March,
er

2025; Los Angeles wildfire events.

●​ Biodiversity Loss & Ecosystem Collapse- ~84% of coral reefs globally experienced bleaching
during the 2023–2025 event;
nd

●​ Land Degradation & Desertification- 32% of land is affected by degradation and 25% by
desertification (FAO).
●​ Water Contamination- eg, In February-March 2025, the collapse of a tailings dam in Zambia
released ~50 million liters of acidic toxic waste into the Kafue River.
U

●​ Health & Socioeconomic Impacts-

○​ Public Health Costs: Polluted air and water increases respiratory, cardiovascular, and
gastrointestinal diseases. Vulnerable groups, kids, elderly, low-income populations are
hardest hit.
○​ Economic Losses- Black Sea tourism took a major hit post oil‑spill.
Policies and legislations to prevent Environmental Degradation
●​ UNFCCC mechanism- under which each country prepares its INDCs to arrest climate change;
commitment towards SDGs.
●​ EU Regulation on Deforestation‑Free Products (EUDR).
●​ EU Single‑Use Plastics Directive (SUPD) .
●​ Global Plastic Pollution Treaty (UNEP/UNEA)- Mandates a legally binding global agreement on
plastics covering their lifecycle from design to disposal.
●​ Montreal Protocol & Kigali Amendment- Landmark treaty (1987) phasing out ozone‑depleting
substances; Kigali Amendment (2016) extends this to potent greenhouse gas HFCs.
●​ Ramsar Convention- Conserves wetlands as vital ecosystems.
31
 ●​ UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030).

Land Degradation and Desertification

●​ According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): “Land
degradation” means the reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the
biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or
range, pasture, forest and woodlands.
●​ According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD):
Desertification” means land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting
from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.

C
Data
●​ According to Desertification and Land Degradation of Selected Districts of India, published by the

PS
ISRO, some 96.40 mha or about 30% of the country’s total area, is undergoing degradation.
●​ 32% of land is affected by degradation and 25% by desertification (FAO).
●​ Decline in land productivity up to 40% (IPCC-6th).
●​ 33% of India’s total geographical area is affected by soil degradation, salinity and vegetation

U
loss(ICAR).
Causes
●​ Overgrazing- Excess livestock grazing has stripped grass cover and compacted soil eg. Northern
d
Nigeria (Kano, Borno, Yobe States); Pressure from displaced populations due to Boko Haram
conflict has intensified grazing pressure.
an
●​ Deforestation- Roots of trees and plants bind the soil particles and regulate the flow of water, thus
saving soil from erosion. The large-scale damage to the soil in the Shiwalik range, the Chos of
Punjab, and the ravines of Chambal Valley is due to deforestation.
●​ Unsustainable Agriculture-Improper tillage, lack of crop rotation, and shifting cultivation are major
St

unsustainable farming practices which accelerate land degradation and reduce soil fertility.
●​ Climate Change & Aridification- Since 2000, drought frequency has increased ~29%, with
predictions that 75% of humanity may experience drought by 2050 (State of the Planet report).
er

●​ Water Mismanagement- Over-irrigation leads to waterlogging and soil salinization.

●​ Urbanization - Conversion of fertile land into buildings causes soil sealing and habitat loss eg.
nd

Urban heat islands.

●​ Mining and Industrial Activities- Strip soil layers, release toxic pollutants, and permanently alter
land quality.
●​ Dust Storms (Erosion)- eg, MENA Region (Middle East & North Africa)-UN Data (2025): 2
U

billion tons of dust are lifted into the air annually.

Steps taken to tackle Land Degradation and Desertification
●​ UNCCD is an agreement for ensuring global action against land degradation. It is the only legally
binding international agreement that links environment and development to sustainable land
management.
○​ India’s National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (NAPCCD) aligns with
UNCCD goals.
●​ Land Degradation Neutrality Initiative- “strong vehicle for driving the implementation of UNCCD”
and called on countries to set voluntary targets to achieve “no net loss” by 2030.
○​ India’s LND Targets: India will restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
●​ Bonn Challenge: Global target to restore 350 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
●​ Great Green Wall of Africa: Pan-African project planting trees across the Sahel to stop desert
expansion.
●​ Afforestation and Reforestation-
○​ India’s National Afforestation Programme aims to rehabilitate degraded forest lands.

32
 ○​ Mauritania has launched local tree planting to stop dunes from burying Chinguetti town
(UNESCO site).

Environmental Degradation versus Development

Development often involves industrial growth, infrastructure expansion, and resource extraction.
Environmental degradation occurs when development harms ecosystems, depletes natural resources, or
pollutes air, water, and [Link] debate is whether rapid economic progress is possible without
compromising environmental integrity.
Arguments for Development :
●​ Drives economic growth, job creation, and poverty reduction.

C
●​ Infrastructure boosts connectivity, trade, and quality of life (e.g., India's Bharatmala highway
project).

PS
●​ Developing nations assert their right to grow like developed nations did.
●​ Energy demand justifies coal use (e.g., India expanding coal capacity despite emissions).
●​ Global projects spur regional growth (e.g., China’s BRI builds ports, but impacts ecosystems).
●​ Industrialisation raises exports and GDP (e.g., Vietnam's rapid manufacturing growth).

U
Arguments for Environmental Protection:
●​ Unsustainable growth depletes natural resources (e.g., groundwater crisis in Punjab).
●​ Environmental damage causes long-term losses—desertification, disease, crop failure.
●​ Climate disasters increase vulnerability (e.g., Kerala floods intensified by deforestation).
d
●​ Pollution harms public health (e.g., Delhi’s air crisis linked to emissions and stubble burning).
an
●​ Biodiversity loss weakens ecosystem services (e.g., dying coral reefs threaten fisheries).
●​ Clean development improves resilience and sustainability (e.g., solar parks in Rajasthan).
Bridging the Gap: Sustainable Development
●​ Renewable energy instead of fossil fuels (e.g. solar, wind, green hydrogen).
St

●​ Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) before approving major projects.

●​ Circular economy practices (reusing, recycling, reducing waste).
●​ Green development can generate clean energy jobs, resilient agriculture, and sustainable growth.
er

●​ Eg, Europe’s Green Deal aims for carbon neutrality by 2050 without sacrificing competitiveness;
nd

Igniting Case Studies

●​ Amazon Rainforest vs. Soybean Farming: Brazil’s economy relies on soya exports, but
deforestation is increasing.
●​ Ken-Betwa River Linking Project (India): Aimed at irrigation and drinking water, but critics
U

fear loss of forest biodiversity.

●​ Indonesia's Palm Oil Industry: Fuels export revenue but is a leading cause of habitat
destruction and peatland fires.

Way Forward to tackle Environmental Degradation

●​ Shift from resource-intensive growth to eco-friendly, low-carbon economies eg, Costa Rica
produces 98% of electricity from renewable sources.
●​ Offer subsidies and incentives for clean technology adoption.
●​ Reforestation and Biodiversity Conservation- eg, Great Green Wall (Africa) and India’s CAMPA
funds for forest regeneration.
●​ Adopt Sustainable Agriculture.
●​ Enforce Stronger Environmental Laws- Ensure strict penalties for violators and promote green
compliance.
●​ Use satellites, GIS, AI, and IoT for real-time monitoring of air, water, and land quality e.g., ISRO’s
remote sensing for tracking desertification.
33
 ●​ Follow Convergent approach to eco restoration
○​ Interdisciplinary Collaboration
○​ Integration of Knowledge Systems
○​ Multi-Stakeholder Engagement
○​ System Thinking
○​ Adaptive Management
○​ Policy and Governance Alignment

NOTE = The Convergent approach template can be used across GS papers and treat its sub parts as
key words as and where they fit in.

C
Conclusion- “Restoring Earth isn’t just healing the past, it’s engineering the future. A thriving planet

PS
tomorrow begins with the actions we take today.” Therefore, urgent collective action through
sustainable development, conservation efforts, and policy enforcement is essential to restore and protect
our environment for current and future generations.

U
Trading Carbon, Powering Growth: Rethinking Carbon Credits in India’s Energy
Future d
Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be
an
maintained even through there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with
respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(2014;12.5)
St

●​ Carbon credits are tradable permits that allow an entity to emit a specific amount of carbon dioxide
or other greenhouse gases.
●​ The carbon credit mechanism allows companies that emit more greenhouse gases to buy credits
er

from those that pollute less or run green projects.

●​ Each credit equals one tonne of CO₂ reduced or removed from the atmosphere.
●​ This system encourages investment in clean energy and helps balance global emissions.
nd

Benefits
●​ Encourages investment in renewable energy and green technologies.
●​ Generates additional income for eco-friendly projects like afforestation and solar power.
●​ Helps India meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
U

●​ Promotes sustainable development while supporting economic growth.

●​ Enhances India’s position in global carbon markets and climate negotiations.
Challenges of Carbon Credit Mechanism:
●​ Price Volatility: Carbon credit values have sharply declined, reducing project profitability and
investor [Link]: CER (Certified Emission Reduction) prices fell from over $20/tonne in
2008 to under $1 in recent years.
●​ Lack of Demand: Weak climate commitments and oversupply of credits have reduced global
demand, especially post-Kyoto Protocol.
●​ Verification and Monitoring Issues: Ensuring transparency, additionality, and preventing double
counting remains a challenge.
●​ Inequitable Distribution: Most credits are generated in large emerging economies, sidelining least
developed countries and small-scale projects.
●​ Transition Uncertainty: The move from CDM (Kyoto) to Article 6 mechanisms (Paris Agreement)
has created legal and policy ambiguity.

34
Way Forward:
●​ Strengthen Global Carbon Markets: Operationalize Article 6 of the Paris Agreement with clear
rules for credit trading and transparency.
●​ Improve MRV Systems: Adopt advanced tech (e.g., blockchain, AI) to ensure credible Monitoring,
Reporting, and Verification.
●​ Diversify Project Types: Encourage nature-based solutions (e.g., mangrove restoration,
agroforestry) alongside tech-heavy clean energy projects.
●​ Promote Domestic Carbon Markets: India should develop a robust national carbon trading
framework aligned with its energy transition.
●​ Ensure Equity and Access: Design mechanisms to support small and community-led projects,

C
especially in underrepresented regions

Carbon credits empower India to grow green while earning clean. By linking economic opportunity with

PS
climate responsibility, they transform environmental action into a sustainable development strategy for the
nation’s future.

U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

35
 Forest Conservation
●​ A forest is a dynamic natural ecosystem dominated by trees and undergrowth that supports a
wide range of biodiversity and ecological processes.
●​ As per the Supreme Court (1996 T.N. Godavarman case), forests include all areas recorded as
forests in government records, regardless of ownership or tree cover.

●​ As per ISFR 2023, India’s total forest and tree cover stands at 25.17% of its geographical area.
●​ Forest cover has increased by 156.41 km² since 2021.

C
●​ India’s estimated forest carbon stock is 7,285.5 million tonnes, an increase of 81.5 million
tonnes, aiding climate goals under NDCs.

PS
●​ Northeastern states have the highest proportional forest and tree cover (67% of their GA)

Significance of Forests
1. Economic Significance

U
●​ Forests are a renewable natural resource, offering a wide range of goods and services.
●​ Key products include:
○​ Wood: Used in construction, furniture, tools, and transportation (boats, bridges).
○​ Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs): Tannins, gums, honey, wax, spices, hides, and
dmusk.
an
○​ Pharmaceuticals & Biochemicals: Many life-saving drugs, insecticides, and pesticides are
derived from forest biodiversity.
●​ Emphasis on sustainable harvesting is crucial to preserve long-term productivity.
2. Ecological Significance
St

a. Climate Regulation:
●​ Act as carbon sinks, absorbing atmospheric CO₂ and reducing greenhouse gases.
●​ Influence rainfall patterns and hydrological cycles by regulating moisture retention and runoff.
er

●​ Help mitigate global warming through photosynthesis-driven carbon sequestration.

b. Biodiversity Conservation:
●​ Forests are hotspots of biodiversity, especially tropical rainforests (e.g., Amazon), which house
nd

over 50% of known species.

●​ Provide habitat and breeding grounds for flora and fauna, supporting ecological resilience.
c. Ecosystem Services:
U

●​ Prevent soil erosion and maintain soil fertility.

●​ Reduce disaster intensity like floods, landslides, and cyclones.
●​ Protect watersheds, ensure sustained flow of rivers and groundwater recharge.
●​ Purify air by absorbing toxic pollutants and particulate matter.
3. Socio-Cultural Significance
●​ Forests are embedded in the cultural, spiritual, and historical ethos of many communities.
●​ Serve as spaces for recreation, spiritual retreat, and aesthetic experiences.
●​ Forest deities, sacred groves, and religious rituals across India underline their cultural relevance.
●​ Indigenous knowledge and traditions are deeply intertwined with forest ecosystems.

36
Major Threats to Forests in India
●​ Deforestation & Degradation
○​ Forest loss due to mining, infrastructure, agriculture.
○​ Example: Aarey forest clearance, Buxwaha mining, Ken-Betwa project.
●​ Shrinking Forest Corridors
○​ Wildlife corridors fragmented by roads, railways.
○​ Examples: Kanha–Pench, Kaziranga–Karbi Anglong.
●​ Plantation Mismanagement
○​ Monocultures replace diverse ecosystems.
○​ Afforestation in grasslands or wetlands harms native biodiversity.

C
○​ Poor survival due to neglect post-planting.
●​ Legal Loopholes & Policy Dilution

PS
○​ Forest Conservation (Amendment) Act 2023 weakens protections.
○​ The Supreme Court (Feb 2024) directed the govt. to uphold broader forest definition.
●​ Human-Wildlife Conflict
○​ Habitat loss leads to encounters.

U
○​ ~500 humans & 100 elephants die yearly.
○​ Example: Leopard sightings in Maharashtra towns.
●​ Climate Change Effects
○​ Rising fires, pest outbreaks, altered rainfall.
d
○​ Example: Uttarakhand forest fires (2024).
○​ Challenges India’s carbon sink targets.
an
●​ Invasive Alien Species
○​ Species like Lantana camara, Senna spectabilis displace native flora.
○​ Reduces fodder, alters ecosystem structure.
St

●​ Funding & Resource Allocation Issues

○​ Poor utilization of CAMPA funds.
○​ Budget constraints hamper scientific forest management.
er

Steps Taken by India

●​ Green India Mission – Afforestation & carbon sink enhancement.
nd

●​ Forest Rights Act (2006) – Recognizes community rights over forest land.
●​ CAMPA – Utilizes funds from diverted forest land for afforestation.
●​ National Forest Fire Management Plan (2018) – Fire prevention and control.
●​ Van Dhan Yojana – Tribal livelihood through value-added NTFPs.
U

●​ Digitized Monitoring – FSI’s high-res satellite mapping and fire alerts.

●​ State Models – Van Panchayats (Uttarakhand), Mendha Lekha (Maharashtra) for community-led
conservation.

37
 Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006
●​ Recognizes rights of Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(OTFDs) over forest land and resources.
●​ Grants individual rights (residence, cultivation, MFP collection) and community rights
(CFR, grazing, water bodies).
●​ Gram Sabha is the nodal body for claim verification and rights settlement.
●​ Protects forest dwellers from eviction until the claim process is completed.
Significance
●​ Corrects historical injustice, ensures livelihood and food security.
●​ Empowers communities for sustainable forest governance.

C
●​ Aids India’s climate and conservation goals.
Challenges

PS
●​ Poor implementation, especially community rights.
●​ Bureaucratic hurdles, legal conflicts, and lack of awareness

Global Initiatives for Forest Protection

U
●​ UN-REDD+ Programme – Financial incentives for reducing deforestation.
●​ Bonn Challenge – India committed to restore 26 million ha of degraded land.
●​ Global Forest Watch – Satellite-based forest change monitoring.
d
●​ Paris Agreement NDCs – Forest-based carbon sink target by 2030.
●​ UN Forum on Forests – Promotes sustainable forest governance globally.
an
Way Forward
●​ Landscape-Based Conservation- Adopt integrated models (e.g., Terai Arc Landscape) to connect
St

habitats.
●​ Use of Indigenous Species & Seed Banks- Promote native species; replicate Vrikshamitra seed
banks in Maharashtra.
er

●​ Community-Based Forest Governance- Scale Van Panchayats, Community Forest Rights, and
Eco-Development Committees.
nd

●​ Green Finance Tools- Promote carbon credits, green bonds for forest funding.
●​ Urban Forestry & Biodiversity Parks- Create functional green ecosystems like Yamuna
Biodiversity Park (Delhi).
●​ Technological Integration
U

○​ Geo-spatial Mapping & Remote Sensing: Used for monitoring forest cover (e.g., ISFR,
Van Agni App for forest fire alerts).
●​ Sustainable Forest Management
○​ National Working Plan Code 2023: Promotes scientific and sustainable management of
forests with continuous data collection.
○​ Certification schemes like FSC promote eco-friendly timber and NTFP harvesting.
●​ Restoration and Afforestation
○​ Green India Mission: Focus on ecosystem restoration and increasing forest-based
livelihood.
○​ Urban Forestry: Miyawaki technique adopted in cities like Hyderabad and Bengaluru.

38
T.N. Godavarman v. Union of India (1995)
●​ Landmark Supreme Court case that expanded the definition of 'forest' to include all areas
recorded as forest, irrespective of ownership.
●​ Made Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 applicable nationwide, requiring Centre's approval for
any non-forest use.
●​ Led to creation of the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) for monitoring forest violations.
●​ Became a continuing mandamus, strengthening India’s environmental jurisprudence under
Article 21 & 48A of Indian Constitution.

C
PARADIGM SHIFT TO GREEN TRANSPORT: Andaman & Nicobar (NITI Aayog best practise)

PS
It received “Award for Excellence in Urban Transport” under the category “City with Best Green
Transport Initiative” by MoHUA, during Urban Mobility India Conference 2021. It is promoting a shift
toward eco-friendly transport systems.

U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

39
 Global Warming and Climate Change
Climate Change is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How
Himalayan and coastal states of India are affected by climate change?[UPSC 2017/15]

Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the
commitments made by India in this conference? [UPSC 2021/15]

C
Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control
measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of
the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. [UPSC 2022/15]

PS
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted a global sea level rise of
about one metre by AD 2100. What would be its impact in India and the other countries in the
Indian Ocean region?[UPSC 2023/15]

U
●​ Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather (rainfall, snow, and wind)
patterns attributed directly or indirectly to human (anthropogenic) activity that alters the composition
d
of the global atmosphere, causing natural climate variability observed over comparable periods
(hundreds of years).
an
●​ Global warming refers to long-term warming (rise in global temperatures) of the planet, which is only
one aspect of climate change.
●​ Climate change includes global warming but encompasses a wider spectrum of alterations in the
St

Earth’s climate system, driven by variability in temperature, precipitation, atmospheric circulation,

and hydrological cycles.
●​ These changes manifest as sea-level rise, retreat of mountain glaciers, accelerated cryospheric
er

decline (including polar and alpine ice melt), and ocean acidification, among other impacts.

Green house effect

nd

The greenhouse effect is a natural process where certain gases in the atmosphere (like CO₂, CH₄, N₂O,
and water vapor) trap heat from the sun. This keeps Earth warm enough to support life. However, Human
activities especially burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes have increased the
concentration of GHGs, intensifying the natural greenhouse effect. This enhanced greenhouse effect leads
U

to global warming and drives wider climate change by:

●​ Raising global average temperatures
●​ Causing polar ice melt and sea level rise
●​ Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (e.g., heatwaves, droughts,
hurricanes)
●​ Disrupting ecosystems and biodiversity
●​ Affecting agriculture and water resources
Causes of Global warming and Climate Change
●​ Natural causes- These are less significant today eg. Volcanic eruptions: Release particles and
gases that can temporarily affect climate; Solar activity: Minor fluctuations in solar radiation;
methane release from cattle and paddy farm.
●​ Anthropogenic causes
○​ Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGs)- GHGs trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere and are
the primary cause of global warming.

40
 ○​ Deforestation reduces carbon sinks and increases global warming; Deforestation
contributes about 10–15% of global GHG emissions annually (FAO 2022).
○​ Industrial Activity- Factories and production plants emit large amounts of CO₂ and other
GHGs.
○​ Burning of Fossil Fuels- Electricity & Heat Production: 42% of global CO₂ emissions
(IEA, 2023).
○​ Urbanization and Industrialization- India’s urban energy demand is expected to double
by 2040 (IEA, 2022). Expanding cities increase energy demand, construction emissions,
and transport use.
○​ Melting Permafrost (Feedback Loop)- As the Arctic warms, permafrost thaws and releases

C
methane and CO₂, further accelerating warming.
Impacts of Climate change and global warming

PS
●​ Extreme Weather Events- Increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves, droughts, floods,
storms, and wildfires. As per NOAA 2024 is recorded as the warmest year.
●​ Water Scarcity and Drought- Himalayan glaciers: Losing mass at doubling the rate since 2000
(ICIMOD, 2023); Cape Town, South Africa (2018): Nearly ran out of water-“Day Zero” crisis.

U
●​ Food and Agriculture Disruption- Changes in rainfall, rising temperatures, and extreme weather
affect crop yields and livestock eg, Horn of Africa: 5 failed rainy seasons caused one of the worst
famines in decades.
●​ Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion- Global mean SLR of 1.3-1.6m by 2100 in high emission
d
scenario (IPCC AR6); Maldives and Kiribati: Low-lying nations at risk of complete submersion by
2100.
an
●​ Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Disruption- Species extinction, habitat shifts, coral bleaching,
and altered migration patterns; 70-90% coral reefs will decline if warming will be above 1.5
degree (IPCC).
St

●​ Human Health Impacts- Europe (2022): Over 61,000 heat-related deaths (Lancet); India &
Southeast Asia: Rising incidence of dengue and chikungunya due to warmer climates.
●​ Economic Damage- 3.8% working population will be lost by 2030 (World Economic Forum).
er

●​ Climate Migration and Conflict- Sub-Saharan Africa: Climate-induced migration expected to affect
over 86 million by 2050 (World Bank Groundswell Report).
nd

Actions to mitigate Climate Change and Global Warming

National level interventions
●​ National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)-2008: Flagship framework with 8 missions
U

targeting clean energy, sustainable agriculture, water, urban planning, and ecosystem protection.
●​ Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (amended in 2022)- Legal framework to improve energy
efficiency in industry and buildings.
●​ Electricity Act, 2003- Promotes open access, renewable energy, and decarbonized power
sector; it has provisions for Renewable purchase obligations (RPOs); Tariff-based bidding for
solar and wind; Grid connectivity for RE projects.
●​ Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme- Supports
EV ecosystem growth.
●​ Environment Protection Act, 1986- provides a basis for regulating emissions; Control of air
pollution; Supports National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
●​ National Bio-Energy Mission- Supports biomass, biogas, and waste-to-energy solutions to cut
methane and CO₂ emissions.
●​ Jal Shakti Abhiyan & Atal Bhujal Yojana- Tackles climate-induced water stress through
conservation and efficient use.
●​ India’s Climate Commitment at Glasgow Summit (CoP-26): Panchamrit
○​ 500 GW Non-Fossil Fuel Capacity by 2030
41
 ○​ 50% of Total Energy from Renewable Sources by 2030
○​ Reduce Emissions Intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030
○​ Reduce 1 Billion Tonnes of Cumulative Emissions by 2030
○​ Net-Zero Carbon Emissions by 2070
International Level Interventions
●​ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992: Stabilize
greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.
●​ Kyoto Protocol- Introduced carbon trading mechanisms like Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM).
●​ Paris Agreement- Limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C; Countries

C
submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and update every 5 years.
●​ Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26, 2021)- Encouraged stronger NDCs and progress on loss and
damage funding.

PS
●​ Climate Finance Mechanisms-
○​ Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established to help developing countries with
mitigation/adaptation.
○​ Adaptation Fund: Supports projects that increase climate resilience.

U
○​ Carbon Markets & Trading- EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS): World's largest
carbon market.
●​ International Maritime Organization (IMO)- Strategy to reduce shipping emissions by 50% by
d
2050.
●​ "Fit for 55" package: Reduce emissions by 55% by 2030.
an
Way Forward
●​ Scale up solar, wind, hydro, and green hydrogen.
St

●​ Phase out coal and oil subsidies.

●​ Enforce Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC).
●​ Expand energy-efficient appliances and LED programs.
er

●​ Climate-Resilient Agriculture
●​ Drives for Afforestation and Carbon Sinks
●​ Scale up access to Green Climate Fund and private investment.
nd

●​ Launch mass campaigns for green lifestyles (e.g., Mission LiFE).

●​ Fulfill and upgrade NDCs under the Paris Agreement.
●​ Collaborate on technology transfer and capacity building.
●​ AI-Powered Climate Forecasting & Precision Action.
U

●​ Promote "Meatless Mondays" Legislation across globe- Government-mandated meat-free meals

at schools, hospitals, and public canteens one day a week; Cuts methane emissions and normalizes
plant-based eating.
●​ Blockchain Carbon Ledger for Individuals- Create a decentralized app that tracks personal
carbon footprints (travel, purchases, etc.) and offers tradable carbon credits or incentives for
reductions.

42
 Climate change mitigation technologies

1.​ Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)- Instead of just reducing emissions, capture CO₂
from industrial plants or directly from the air and store or reuse it.
2.​ Enhanced Rock Weathering- Spreading crushed volcanic rock (like basalt) on farmland to absorb
CO₂ from the air.
3.​ Biochar Farming- Burning agricultural waste in a low-oxygen environment to produce biochar, a
carbon-rich soil additive.
4.​ Floating Solar Farms- Solar panels installed on reservoirs, lakes, or canals no land use conflict, and
water helps cool panels.

C
5.​ Geoengineering & Atmospheric Tech- refers to large-scale interventions in Earth’s natural systems
to counteract climate change eg, Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI).

PS
6.​ Cryosphere Restoration- Protect or restore ice to prevent further warming and sea-level rise.

Conclusion- The climate clock is ticking, but our choices can still rewrite the story. With bold innovation,
green action, and global unity, a sustainable future is within reach. Let’s turn the tide, because the way

U
forward is the only way through.

COP 21/ Paris agreement [10 YEAR IN 2025]

d
●​ The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by
196 Parties. It entered into force on 4 November 2016.
an
●​ Goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above
pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above
pre-industrial levels.”
St

●​ Countries to set voluntary GHG reduction targets "Nationally Determined Contributions" (NDCs),
and update them every five years with more ambitious goals
●​ Invites countries to formulate and submit long-term low greenhouse gas emission development
er

strategies (LT-LEDS).LT-LEDS provide the long-term horizon to the NDCs. Unlike NDCs, they are
not mandatory.
●​ It establishes a technology framework to provide overarching guidance to the well-functioning
nd

Technology Mechanism.
●​ With the Paris Agreement, countries established an enhanced transparency framework (ETF).
●​ Under the ETF, starting in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress in
climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received.
U

India's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution

43
COP29 (Baku, Azerbaijan) (2024)
●​ Adoption of the New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance (NCQG) to triple finance for
developing countries to USD 300 billion/year by 2035 & efforts to mobilize $1.3 trillion annually by
2035 from public and private sources.
●​ Finalized the rules for Article 6 (related to international carbon markets) of the Paris Agreement.
●​ All transparency negotiating items concluded, including Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF).
●​ 1st submissions of Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs) by 13 counties under the Paris
Agreement.
●​ Baku Declaration on Global Climate Transparency and Baku Global Climate Transparency Platform

C
launched to support the full implementation of the ETF.
●​ Adopted the Baku Workplan and renewed the mandate of the Facilitative Working Group (FWG) of
the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform (LCIPP)

PS
The triple planetary crisis refers to the three main interlinked issues that humanity currently faces:
climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss

U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

44
Environment Conservation and Sustainable Development
Rehabilitation of human settlements is one of the important environmental impacts which always attracts
controversy while planning major projects. Discuss the measures suggested for mitigation of this impact
while proposing major developmental projects. [12.5M] (2016)
Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how
understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development of a region. [15M] (2019)

C
“We must realize that when basic needs have been met, human development is primarily about being
more, not having more.” – from 'The Earth Charter'

PS
Concept of Sustainable Development
Sustainable development, according to the Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future
(1987), is defined as ‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs’

U
Evolution of Concept
d
an
St
er
nd

Integration of Development and Ecology (1970s)

●​ Club of Rome Report (1972): Limits to Growth used systems dynamics to show environmental
constraints to economic growth.
●​ Blueprint for Survival (1972): Urged radical societal change for ecological balance.
U

Global Recognition (1980s)

●​ IUCN’s World Conservation Strategy (1980): First major use of "sustainable development" as a
policy term.
●​ UN World Charter for Nature (1982): Introduced five conservation principles to guide human
interaction with nature.
●​ Brundtland Commission Report (1987): Defined Sustainable Development as “development
that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations.”
Institutionalization – UN & Earth Summits (1990s)
●​ Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro (1992): Adopted Agenda 21, focusing on:
○​ Information, Integration, Public Participation → as pillars of implementation.
●​ Rio Protocol: Marked first global consensus on sustainability (though lacked specific targets).
Evolution through Global Frameworks (2000 onwards)
●​ Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015): Focused on poverty, health, and education, with
limited environmental integration.

45
 ●​ Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030):Integrated social inclusion, economic growth,
and environmental protection

Need for Sustainable Development

1.​ Resource constraints demand judicious use of finite natural capital for long-term survival.
1.​ Rising environmental degradation threatens ecosystems, biodiversity, and public health.
2.​ Ensures intergenerational equity by protecting the rights of future generations.
3.​ Promotes inclusive growth by addressing poverty, inequality, and social justice.
4.​ Aims to build climate resilience against global warming and extreme weather events.
5.​ Supports economic stability through green jobs, circular economy, and sustainable industries.

C
6.​ Secures food, water, and energy security amidst growing demand and scarcity.
7.​ Aligns with global commitments like the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals

PS
(SDGs).
8.​ Tackles challenges of urbanisation through smart cities and sustainable infrastructure.
9.​ Strengthens institutional capacity for participatory, transparent, and accountable governance.

U
India’s Efforts Towards Sustainable Development
1. Institutional Mechanism
●​ NITI Aayog: Nodal agency for SDG localisation, coordination, and monitoring across States/UTs.
●​ SDG India Index (launched in 2018): Tracks progress across 113 indicators aligned with 16 SDGs.
d
2. Social Sector Interventions
●​ Poverty Alleviation: PMAY, MGNREGA, NFSA, PM Garib Kalyan Yojana.
an
●​ Health: Ayushman Bharat-PMJAY, Health & Wellness Centres, Poshan Abhiyaan.
●​ Education: NEP 2020, Samagra Shiksha, Digital Infrastructure for Learning (DIKSHA).
3. Women & Social Equity
St

●​ Gender Equality: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Stand-Up India, increased female LFPR.
●​ Financial Inclusion: PM Jan Dhan Yojana, DBT, PM Mudra Yojana
4. Energy & Climate Action
er

●​ Renewables: Most of new capacity from non-fossil sources.

●​ Clean Energy Access: Saubhagya for electricity; PM Ujjwala for LPG to 10 crore+ HHs.
●​ Climate Mitigation: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), State Action Plans
nd

(SAPCCs), FASTER adoption of RE.

5. Sustainable Urbanisation
●​ Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban + Gramin).
●​ Solid Waste & Sewage: focus on door-to-door collection; waste processing; sewage treatment.
U

6. Water & Sanitation

●​ Jal Jeevan Mission: 14.9+ crore rural tap water connections. (NITI Ayog SDG index 2023-24)
●​ SBM-G: 11 crore toilets built; ODF+ verified districts. (NITI Ayog SDG index 2023-24)
7. Livelihood & Skill Development
●​ Skill India Mission: 1.4 crore trained, 54 lakh reskilled. (NITI Ayog SDG index 2023-24))
●​ Start-Up India and Stand-Up India for entrepreneurship promotion.
●​ PM Vishwakarma Yojana for traditional artisans.
8. Digital Infrastructure & Governance
●​ Digital India, Aadhaar, UPI, low-cost internet → boosts financial inclusion and e-governance.
●​ 95.5% Aadhaar coverage; 34 lakh crore DBT made. (NITI Aayog SDG index 2023-24)
9. Environmental Sustainability
●​ Afforestation & Biodiversity: Forest cover at ~25%; carbon stock ↑ by 1.11%. (India State of
Forest Report 2021)
●​ Life Mission, Namami Gange, CAMPA, and Eco-restoration projects.

46
10. Global Commitments & Leadership
●​ SDG 2030 Agenda: National goals aligned with UN SDGs.
●​ Paris Agreement: India committed to Net Zero by 2070.
●​ Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): Behavioural shift for sustainable living.

Challenges in Achieving Sustainable Development

1.​ Deforestation: India has experienced significant deforestation, losing approximately 668,400
hectares of forests between 2015 and 2020, making it the second-highest deforestation rate globally
during that period. (UK-based Utility Bidder)
2.​ Biodiversity Loss: Overall, wild vertebrate species have declined by 73% between 1970 and

C
2020, according to the LPI.
3.​ Climate Change Impact: Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and frequent disasters affect
agriculture, health, and ecosystems.

PS
4.​ Water Crisis: India is experiencing significant groundwater depletion, with an estimated 122-199
billion cubic meters being depleted annually
5.​ Urban–Rural Health Divide: Limited rural access to healthcare and persistent infant mortality
hamper inclusive human development.

U
6.​ Fiscal Constraints: Competing priorities and limited public funds restrict sustainable investments;
high SDG financing gap persists.
7.​ Weak Local Capacity: Many states and local bodies lack technical skills and institutional capacity
d
to plan and execute SDG-linked initiatives.
8.​ Short-Termism in Planning: Policies focus on immediate results over long-term sustainability; lag
an
effects delay visible progress.
9.​ Neglected Trade-offs: Poor coordination leads to conflicts between goals (e.g., growth vs climate),
missing synergy opportunities.
St

10.​Exclusion of Marginalised: SCs, STs, women, and rural poor face barriers in accessing education,
healthcare, jobs, and financial services.
11.​Environmental Overload: India's 2.4% land supports 16% of world population – leading to overuse
er

of land, water, and energy resources.

Way Forward for Achieving SDGs in India:

nd

1.​ Strengthen Data Systems through real-time dashboards and disaggregated outcome-based
metrics.
2.​ Empower Local Governance by enabling panchayats and ULBs in SDG budgeting and execution.
3.​ Align Financial Planning with grassroots priorities using bottom-up and participatory budgeting.
U

4.​ Build Institutional Capacity via training in policy design, implementation, and monitoring.
5.​ Mobilise Green Finance through CSR, green bonds, and blended finance instruments.
6.​ Ensure Cross-Sector Convergence by breaking silos and integrating inter-departmental planning.
7.​ Advance Social Inclusion by targeting marginalized groups and bridging urban–rural gaps.
8.​ Increase Public Engagement through awareness drives and civil society participation in audits

India’s path to sustainable development is complex, requiring multi-dimensional reforms, fiscal

innovation, and inclusive governance. Aligning growth with environmental limits, social justice, and local
empowerment is key to achieving the Vision of Viksit Bharat @ 2047 and delivering on Agenda 2030.

Carrying Capacity: Guiding Sustainable Resource Use

Carrying capacity is the maximum population an ecosystem can sustain indefinitely without degrading
natural resources, biodiversity, or ecological balance.

47
Relevance to Sustainable Development:
●​ Resource Optimization: Guides sustainable use of water, land, forests, and energy to avoid
overexploitation.
●​ Urban Planning: Informs population limits, infrastructure, and land-use based on ecological
thresholds.
●​ Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Sets limits for industrial, tourism, or infrastructure
projects to minimize ecological footprint.
●​ Disaster Risk Reduction: Prevents resource stress (e.g., deforestation, soil erosion) that worsens
floods, droughts, or landslides.
●​ Climate Resilience: Aligns development with ecosystem capacity, promoting low-emission,

C
adaptive strategies.
Respecting an ecosystem’s carrying capacity ensures the continuity of resources and ecological balance. It
is vital for sustaining livelihoods, preserving biodiversity, and enabling long-term, sustainable development

PS
without exhausting natural systems.

U
d
an
St
er
nd
U

48
 Environment Impact Assessment
Environmental impact assessment studies are increasingly undertaken before project is cleared by the
government. Discuss the environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants located at Pitheads.
[12.5M] (2014)

How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ from the existing EIA
Notification, 2006? [10M] (2020)

What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment

C
(EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details (2024;10)

PS
●​ UNEP defines EIA as a planning tool to identify the environmental, social, and economic
impacts of a proposed project prior to decision-making.
●​ It operationalises the Triple Bottom Line (People, Planet, Profit) approach of sustainable
development.

U
Evolution in India
●​ Initiation (1976–77): EIA process began when the Planning Commission directed the Department
of Science & Technology to assess river valley projects from an environmental perspective.
d
●​ Later extended to projects needing Public Investment Board (PIB) approval- done via
an
administrative orders (non-statutory).
●​ Legal Backing (1986): Environment (Protection) Act enacted to provide statutory support for
environmental protection, including EIA.
●​ Statutory Status (1994): EIA made statutory via notification on 1994.
St

●​ Covered 30 project categories (e.g., mining, industry, thermal power).

Aims
er

●​ To predict and mitigate adverse environmental impacts early in project planning.

●​ To ensure integration of environmental concerns in development planning.
●​ To strengthen participatory decision-making and reduce conflicts and delays.
nd

Principles
●​ Participation, Practicality, Transparency, Certainty, Accountability, Cost-effectiveness.
U

EIA Process and Mechanism

1.​ Screening – Whether full or partial EIA is needed.
2.​ Scoping – Identification of relevant impacts and alternatives.
3.​ Assessment – Predicting and evaluating potential environmental impacts.
4.​ Reporting – Drafting EIA report and Environmental Management Plan (EMP).
5.​ Review – Scrutiny by authorities and public.
6.​ Decision-making – Approval with or without conditions.
7.​ Monitoring & Auditing – Ensuring compliance, feedback loop for future projects.

49
Amendment- EIA 2020
●​ Seeks to replace EIA 2006 under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
●​ Public hearing notice period reduced from 30 to 20 days.
●​ Category B2 projects (e.g., small hydro, highways, MSMEs) exempt from EIA and public consultation.
●​ Introduces post-facto clearance for projects operating without prior EC.
●​ Annual compliance reports instead of bi-annual (2006 rule).
●​ The public can’t report violations; only authorities can.
●​ Strategic projects exempt from public scrutiny; the government decides the definition.
●​ 25–50% expansion in capacity exempted from EIA if “no pollution load” certified.
●​ Validity of clearances extended (e.g., mining: 30→50 yrs, nuclear: 5→15 yrs).

C
Criticism
●​ Violates SC ruling (Alembic Pharma 2020) by allowing post-facto approvals.

PS
●​ Restricts public participation and undermines environmental democracy.
●​ Federalism undermined: Centre can bypass states in forming SEIAAs.
●​ Weakens monitoring by reducing reporting frequency and oversight.
●​ Non-compliance with global commitments like CBD, UNFCCC, Paris Accord.

U
●​ Encourages violations by enabling later regularisation via fines.
●​ Strategic tag misused to bypass scrutiny of large infra projects.
Way Forward
●​ Restore public role and strengthen grievance mechanisms.
d
●​ Ensure multi-season baseline data and extend study areas.
●​ Align EIA with constitutional (Art 48A/51A[g]) and international obligations.
an
●​ TSR Subramanian Committee
○​ Suggested standard ToRs and single-window clearance to speed up approvals.
St

Challenges
er

Structural Issues
●​ Data Deficiency: EIA reports based on data by project proponents (conflict of interest).
●​ Narrow Screening Criteria: Many ecologically harmful projects escape assessment.
nd

Process Weakness
●​ Poor Public Participation: Often limited or manipulated.
●​ Opaque Decision-Making: Final decisions by MoEFCC, not independent regulators.
●​ Post-Project Monitoring: Weak or absent.
U

●​ Lack of Capacity: Technical staff shortage in reviewing authorities.

Judicial Critique
●​ SC Observations:
○​ Need for independent regulator (Centre for Public Interest Litigation v. Union of India,
2011).
○​ Appraisal, Monitoring, and Penalty powers cannot rest solely with MoEF.
●​ NGT: Quashed clearances like Tawang Dam over EIA inadequacies (Black-Necked Crane habitat
ignored).

TSR Subramanian Committee (2014)

●​ Observations:
○​ The legislative framework is sound, implementation is weak.
○​ Data asymmetry: Inspectors rely on the same data as project proponents.
●​ Suggestions:
○​ Enact Environmental Laws Management Act (ELMA).
50
 ○​ Create NEMA (National Environmental Management Authority) and SEMA (State) –
full-time, expert, single-window clearance bodies.
○​ Develop Indian Environmental Service (like IAS).
○​ Use GIS & Digital Mapping for real-time monitoring.
○​ Mandate independent EIA consultants, third-party review.
○​ Penal structure based on Environmental Reconstruction Cost (ERC), Polluter Pays
Principle.
○​ Clubbing of Air, Water, Forest Acts under umbrella law for synergy.

Way Forward

C
Area Suggestions

PS
Regulatory Create independent statutory regulators (like NEMA) for clearances, monitoring,
and penalties.
Legislative Enact ELMA for a unified and robust legal framework.

U
Institutional Strengthen manpower, technical expertise, and inter-agency coordination.
Capacity
Transparency
d & Mandatory disclosure of raw data, third-party validation, and real-time public
Data access.
Public Participation Increase outreach in vernacular languages, digital tools for engagement.
an
Tech Integration Use AI, remote sensing, satellite data for dynamic monitoring.
Accountability Define strict penal provisions for violations (based on ERC/compensatory
St

afforestation rates).
Biodiversity Align EIA with CBD, CITES, and integrate SEA with national planning.
Integration
er

Judicial Balance Empower NGT, but ensure checks and balances to avoid executive overreach.
nd

"Development and environment are not mutually exclusive- they are co-dependent pillars of sustainability."
A robust and independent EIA framework, built on scientific, participatory, and accountable
principles, is essential to achieve environmentally just and economically viable development in India.
U

51
 Miscellaneous
Wild life conservation
●​ Wildlife conservation refers to the protection, preservation, and sustainable management of wild
species and their natural habitats.
●​ It aims to ensure ecological balance, prevent species extinction, and maintain biodiversity for
future generations.
Constitutional Provisions for Wildlife Conservation
●​ Article 48A (Directive Principles): State shall protect and improve the environment and safeguard

C
the forests and wildlife.
●​ Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty): Every citizen must protect and improve the natural environment

PS
including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.
●​ 7th Schedule- Concurrent List: Forests and wildlife fall under joint responsibility of Centre and
States (post-42nd Amendment).
●​ Article 21 (Right to Life): Interpreted by SC to include the right to a healthy environment,

U
including wildlife protection.
Need for Wildlife Conservation
●​ Biodiversity preservation: India is home to 7–8% of global species; essential for ecosystem
services.
d
●​ Ecological balance: Keystone species like tigers, elephants maintain food chains and habitat
structures.
an
●​ Climate resilience: Forests and wetlands rich in wildlife act as carbon sinks and buffers.
●​ Cultural and spiritual value: Many Indian communities worship wildlife (e.g., Naga tribes and
hornbills).
St

●​ Economic value: Wildlife boosts eco-tourism and rural livelihoods; supports forest-based
economies.
●​ Prevent zoonotic spillovers: Conservation helps reduce human-wildlife conflict and disease
er

emergence.
Challenges in Wildlife Conservation in India
1.​ Habitat Fragmentation: Linear infrastructure (roads, railways, canals) splits habitats, disrupting
nd

wildlife corridors and migration (e.g., NH7 through Kanha-Pench corridor).

2.​ Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC): Encroachment into forest fringes leads to conflict, especially with
elephants, tigers, and leopards, causes crop damage, livestock loss, and human deaths.
U

3.​ Poaching & Illegal Trade: Demand for tiger parts, pangolin scales, and exotic species fuels
wildlife trafficking networks despite strict laws.
4.​ Weak Enforcement & Corruption: Understaffed forest departments, lack of training, and political
interference reduce implementation capacity.
5.​ Climate Change: Alters species distribution, breeding patterns, and habitat suitability (e.g., snow
leopards moving to higher altitudes).
6.​ Invasive Alien Species: Introduction of species like Lantana, Parthenium, and African catfish
threatens native flora and fauna.
7.​ Unsustainable Eco-tourism: Poorly regulated tourism in parks like Corbett and Ranthambore
causes habitat degradation and stress to animals.
8.​ Shrinking Grasslands and Wetlands: These neglected ecosystems host endangered species
(e.g., Great Indian Bustard), but face diversion for development.
9.​ Mining and Development Projects: Forest clearances for mining, dams, and urbanisation lead
to loss of critical wildlife habitats.

52
 10.​Funding and Resource Gaps: Delayed release of CAMPA funds and insufficient budget for state
wildlife boards and research institutions.

Government Steps for Wildlife Protection

Laws and Policies
●​ Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Provides for wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and species
protection schedules.
●​ Forest Conservation Act, 1980: Restricts deforestation and diversion of forest land.
●​ Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Safeguards genetic diversity and traditional knowledge.
●​ Indian Forest Act, 1927: Governs forest resources and wildlife habitats.

C
Institutions and Missions
●​ Project Tiger (1973) & Project Elephant (1992): Flagship species-focused conservation

PS
programmes.
●​ National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): Promotes conservation and equitable benefit-sharing.
●​ CAMPA Fund: Compensatory afforestation for forest loss.
●​ Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats Scheme: Funds habitat improvement and

U
human-wildlife mitigation.
Technology and Surveillance
●​ Use of drone surveillance, camera traps, and e-DNA monitoring.
●​ M-STrIPES app for patrolling and wildlife protection by forest guards.
d
●​ VanAgni app for real-time forest fire alerts.
an
The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022
The Amendment act introduced significant reforms to strengthen conservation, align with international
agreements like CITES, and address emerging challenges.
St

Key Amendments
Alignment with CITES
●​ New Schedule IV: Created to list species under CITES appendices, ensuring stricter regulation of
er

international trade in endangered flora and fauna.

●​ Management Authority: Central government empowered to appoint authorities for CITES
compliance, including issuing permits and monitoring trade.
nd

●​ Scientific Authority: Established to assess ecological impacts of wildlife trade.

Penalty Enhancements
●​ General violations: Fines increased from ₹25,000 to ₹1,00,000.
U

●​ Specially protected animals: Minimum fine raised to ₹25,000 (from ₹10,000) and imprisonment of
3–7 years.
●​ Repeat offenders: Stricter punishments and restricted bail.
Use of Elephants
●​ Permitted elephant use for "religious or any other purposes" under strict regulatory oversight.
Invasive Alien Species
●​ Central government authorized to regulate or prohibit the import, trade, and possession of invasive
species threatening native ecosystems.

53
Best Practices
Best Practice Description
Eco-sensitive Zones Buffer areas around protected areas to limit harmful development.
Community-led Apatani tribe (Arunachal Pradesh) and Bishnoi community
conservation (Rajasthan) actively protect local fauna.
Translocation Successes Lion relocation to Gir.
Eco-tourism Models Sustainable tourism in Periyar and Satpura Tiger Reserves creates
local employment while conserving nature.

C
Way Forward

PS
Pillar Action Points
Legislative Update WPA 1972 to include stricter penalties, better protection for lesser-known
Strengthening species.
Community Promote Joint Forest Management (JFM) and incentivize local guardianship of

U
Participation biodiversity.
Conflict Early warning systems, crop compensation schemes, and wildlife corridors (e.g.,
Mitigation elephant corridors in Assam).
d
Cross-border For migratory species and transboundary habitats (e.g., Indo-Nepal Terai Arc
an
Cooperation Landscape).
Education & Integrate conservation values in school curricula and media.
Awareness
St

Scientific Strengthen data-driven conservation using AI, satellite tracking, and biodiversity
Monitoring mapping.
er

Wildlife conservation is not just an environmental necessity but a civilizational responsibility. India must
adopt a rights-based, science-driven, and community-led approach to ensure harmony between nature
nd

and people.

Antarctic Ice melting

●​ On January 2, 2025, record Antarctic surface melt was observed - 3.7% of the ice sheet and
U

49% of the Antarctic Peninsula showed melt on a single day (according to Copernicus Marine data).
●​ The Amundsen Sea region shows significant ocean-driven ice shelf thinning under all warming
scenarios.
Reasons for Ice Melting
●​ Warming Ocean Currents: Warm water erodes floating ice shelves, destabilizing land glaciers
behind them.
●​ Atmospheric Heating: Abnormally high surface air temperatures across Antarctica due to altered
circulation patterns.
●​ Positive Feedback Loops: Melting ice reduces albedo, further accelerating heat absorption and
melt.
●​ Solar Radiation: Longer daylight and high insolation during summer months intensify surface
melt.

54
Consequences of Antarctic Ice Melt
Sea Level Rise
●​ West Antarctic melt alone can raise sea levels by 5.3 meters, endangering low-lying nations and
cities.
●​ India’s coastal zones like Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai face severe inundation and
displacement risks.
Climate Disruption
●​ Collapse of deep ocean currents from Antarctica may weaken thermohaline circulation, disrupting
global weather and monsoons.
●​ Melting reduces the ocean's ability to absorb CO₂, leading to more atmospheric greenhouse gas

C
concentration.
Food Chain Impact

PS
●​ Southern Ocean circulation supports 75% of global phytoplankton; disruption may destabilize
marine food webs.
Ocean Chemistry
●​ Stratification from freshwater melt may reduce nutrient upwelling, impacting fisheries and marine

U
biodiversity.

Global and Indian Efforts

Global Treaties & Research
d
●​ Antarctic Treaty System (1959): Protects Antarctica for peaceful, scientific purposes; prohibits
mineral exploitation.
an
●​ Paris Agreement (2015): Aims to cap global warming below 2°C, critical for Antarctic ice sheet
stability.
Indian Initiatives
St

●​ Antarctic Treaty Accession: India joined in 1983, becoming a Consultative Party.

●​ Indian Antarctic Act 2022: Regulates expeditions, bans introduction of alien species, and protects
native flora/fauna.
er

●​ Polar Research Stations:Maitri & Bharati

Way Forward
nd

Pillar Recommendations
Climate Action Strengthen global emission reductions, especially methane & CO₂, to limit
warming below 1.5°C.
U

Environmental Enforce Antarctic Treaty protocols, especially waste management and activity
Governance regulation.
Geoengineering Explore safe solar radiation management to slow melting, though long-term
R&D ecological effects must be studied.
Technology & Develop low-impact polar tech, eco-friendly stations, and satellite monitoring
Infrastructure tools.
Coastal Implement climate-resilient infrastructure (sea walls, flood zoning) in India's
Adaptation coastal zones.
Ocean Strengthen real-time ocean data systems to track meltwater impacts on currents
Monitoring and marine life.

55
The Antarctic melt crisis is a global warning signal - the collapse of distant ice shelves today could
flood our homes tomorrow. It demands urgent mitigation, adaptation, and multilateral cooperation to
safeguard Earth’s climate and coastlines.

Illegal Sand mining

Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment.
Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples (2019;10)

●​ Sand mining refers to the extraction of sand from riverbeds, banks, beaches, floodplains, and

C
coastal areas for construction and infrastructure.
●​ Classified as a minor mineral under the Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act,

PS
1957 (Section 3e).
●​ Sand is vital for concrete, glass, and industrial uses, but excessive mining disturbs ecological
and hydrological balance.
●​ WWF: Sand mining caused 90% reduction in sediment flow in major Asian rivers including the

U
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mekong.
●​ Chambal, Son, Ken, Betwa rivers in Gangetic plains face unsustainable extraction, exceeding
natural replenishment rates.
d
Effects of Illegal Sand Mining
an
Environmental Effects:
●​ Loss of aquatic biodiversity – impacts gharial, river dolphin, otters, turtles.
●​ Riverbed erosion, channel instability, and delta shrinkage.
●​ Groundwater depletion due to pit formation; impacts on drinking water and agriculture.
St

●​ Sediment imbalance and increased flood risk from the removal of dunes and banks.
Social & Economic Effects:
●​ Rise of sand mafias, illegal trade, and violence against whistle-blowers and officials.
er

●​ Loss of state revenue due to unregulated and illegal mining operations.

●​ Bonded labour and exploitation in informal mining networks.
●​ Damage to bridges, embankments, and public infrastructure.
nd

Government Steps
●​ MMDR Act 1957: Allows State Governments to regulate mining, enforce rules .
●​ EIA Notification 2006: Requires Environmental Clearance by SEIAA for sand mining.
U

●​ Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines 2016: Promote scientific assessment, limits on

depth/volume.
●​ Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines 2020: Mandate satellite surveillance, GIS, drone usage.
●​ Mining Surveillance System (MSS): Launched by IBM, MEITY & BISAG for real-time monitoring.
●​ States like Bihar set up permanent sand checkpoints.
Way Forward
●​ Encourage alternative materials: M-sand, fly ash, recycled construction waste to reduce
dependence.
●​ Shift to a centralized regulatory framework for uniform monitoring and enforcement.
●​ Strengthen tech-based tracking: GPS, drones, AI, satellite data for transparency.
●​ Ban extraction in eco-sensitive rivers and enforce ecological thresholds.
●​ Promote community-based river conservation and livelihood alternatives.
●​ Regular update of District Survey Reports (DSRs) to reflect changing river dynamics.

56
Ocean Bottom trawling
●​ Bottom trawling refers to dragging weighted
fishing nets across the seabed to target demersal
species like shrimp, cod, and crabs.
●​ It is a volume-based commercial fishing
technique, often deployed by mechanised or
deep-sea trawlers for large catches.

Impacts

C
1.​ Seabed Destruction: Trawling equipment
damages benthic habitats, crushing corals,
sponges, and deep-sea biodiversity hotspots.

PS
2.​ Biodiversity Collapse: High bycatch rate causes unintended capture of juvenile fish, endangered
species, and non-commercial marine life.
3.​ Carbon Emission Risk: Disturbance of seabed sediments releases locked carbon, hindering
oceanic carbon sequestration and amplifying climate change.

U
4.​ Food Web Disruption: Loss of predator or prey species alters trophic balance, risking ecosystem
collapse.
5.​ Low Regeneration: Deep-sea species have slow reproductive cycles, making population
d
recovery from trawling damage century-long.
6.​ Conflict with Traditional Fishers: Mechanised trawling undermines small-scale artisanal
an
fisheries, leading to livelihood stress and transboundary disputes.
7.​ International relations: Bottom trawling by Tamil Nadu fishers in the Palk Bay region triggers
bilateral tensions with Sri Lanka and violates maritime pacts.
St

8.​ Juvenile Fish Depletion: Trawling often harvests immature fish, leading to stock collapse and
threatening long-term sustainability.
9.​ Decline in Export Fisheries: Overfishing by bottom trawling reduces high-value species, impacting
er

marine export revenue.

Governmental Steps in India
1.​ Palk Bay Scheme (2017): Aimed to replace bottom trawlers with 2,000 deep-sea fishing vessels
nd

under the Blue Revolution, promoting sustainable livelihoods.

2.​ Marine Fishing Regulation Acts (State-specific): Tamil Nadu restricts mechanised fishing to
beyond 3 nautical miles, but implementation gaps persist.
3.​ India-Sri Lanka Maritime Agreements (1974 & 1976): Demarcated maritime boundaries and
U

mutually barred fishing across borders, now frequently violated.

4.​ Promotion of Deep-Sea Fishing: Central government is incentivising sustainable, deeper zone
fishing, away from fragile coastal ecosystems.
Global Frameworks & Agreements
1.​ UN Sustainable Development Goal 14: Targets conservation and sustainable use of oceans,
with a call to eliminate destructive fishing practices by 2020.
2.​ United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Provides legal basis for
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) management; mandates states to ensure marine conservation
and avoid overexploitation.
Way Forward
1.​ Transition to Sustainable Gear: Replace bottom trawling with gillnets, hook-and-line, and other
selective, eco-friendly fishing methods.
2.​ Cross-border Cooperation: Strengthen Indo-Sri Lanka Joint Working Groups for coordinated
action on shared marine resources and conflict resolution.

57
 3.​ Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Expand no-trawl zones in vulnerable seabed ecosystems to
allow natural regeneration.
4.​ Awareness and Skill Training: Train fishers in deep-sea navigation, modern fishing
techniques, and marine conservation under Fisheries Schemes.
5.​ Satellite Surveillance and GPS Monitoring: Enforce compliance through Vessel Monitoring
Systems (VMS) and real-time satellite tracking.
6.​ Strict Licensing and Seasonal Bans: Implement trawling bans during breeding seasons to
support fish stock recovery.
7.​ Subsidy Rationalisation: Redirect fuel and equipment subsidies towards green fishing practices
and community-based fisheries management.

C
8.​ Blue Economy Integration: Align bottom trawling phase-out with India's Blue Economy policy for
sustainable ocean resource utilisation.

PS
Electric Vehicles (Evs)

The adoption of electric vehicles is rapidly growing worldwide. How do electric vehicles contribute to
reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional

U
combustion engine vehicles? (2023;15)

●​ Electric vehicles (EVs) are transport systems powered primarily by electricity stored in rechargeable
d
battery packs, eliminating the need for conventional internal combustion engines.
●​ India seeks to attain a 30% share of electric vehicles, in the total vehicles sold, by 2030. Sale of EVs
an
in India went up from 50,000 in 2016 to 2.08 million in 2024 as against global EV sales having risen
from 918,000 in 2016 to 18.78 million in 2024 (PIB)
St

Need for Electric Vehicles in India

Reason Explanation
er

Energy Security 85% of India’s crude oil demand is met through imports;
EVs reduce this dependency and help reduce CAD.
Climate Goals India targets net-zero by 2070; EVs can reduce transport-related GHG
nd

emissions.
Industrial EV manufacturing can boost Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat by promoting
Competitiveness domestic industries.
U

Urban Pollution 14 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities are in India (WHO)
EVs reduce local emissions like PM2.5 and NOx.
Innovation & The Economic Survey 2023 predicted that India's domestic electric vehicle
Employment market would likely experience a 50% compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
between 2022 and 2030, with 10 million annual sales by 2030 and the creation of
around 50 million direct and indirect jobs by 2030
Global India supports the EV30@30 initiative (30% new EV sales by 2030) and aims to
Commitments reduce emission intensity by 33–35% (NDC targets).

Challenges in EV Adoption:
1.​ High Initial Cost: EVs are costlier due to expensive batteries (40% of vehicle cost).
2.​ Limited Range: Most EVs offer 100–200 km per charge, leading to “range anxiety.”
3.​ Battery Import Dependence: India imports 100% of lithium-ion batteries, mainly from China and
Korea.
58
 4.​ Charging Infrastructure Deficit: Only 26000 public charging stations for 20+ lakh EVs (BEE DATA
2025).
5.​ Slow Charging Time: Charging takes 4–5 hours; fast chargers are rare and costly.
6.​ Lack of Domestic Raw Materials: Scarcity of lithium, cobalt, and nickel limits local battery
production.
7.​ Lack of Recycling: Battery recycling infrastructure is underdeveloped; e-waste concerns persist.
8.​ Coal-Based Electricity: Over 50% of power in India comes from coal-EVs are not fully green.
9.​ Technological Gaps: Weak R&D ecosystem for semiconductors, controllers, and battery chemistry.
10.​Policy Uncertainty: Absence of long-term stable EV policy deters large-scale private investment.

C
PS
U
Government Initiatives:
Scheme/Policy Objective
d
National Electric Mobility Aims at 6–7 million hybrid and EV sales yearly post-2020.
an
Mission Plan (NEMMP)
PLI Schemes For EV components & ACC battery manufacturing.
Green Number Plates For EVs, along with road tax and registration exemptions.
St

Battery Swapping Policy Drafted for interoperability and faster refuelling alternative.
Model Building Bye-Laws Mandate 20% parking space for EV charging in buildings.
er

2016
GST Rationalisation EVs taxed at 5% (vs 28% for ICE vehicles), charging equipment also at
nd

5%.
State EV Policies Delhi, Maharashtra, Karnataka offer local incentives
U

Way Forward:
1.​ Phased Transition: Begin with hybrids → plug-in hybrids → pure EVs → hydrogen vehicles.
2.​ Expand Charging Network: as per GameChanger Law Advisors India needs 39 lakh EV charging
points.
3.​ Boost R&D: Invest in solid-state batteries, graphene-based cells, and low-cost components.
4.​ Secure Raw Materials: Explore domestic lithium in J&K, tie up with Latin American lithium triangle.
5.​ Battery Recycling Ecosystem: Develop formal recycling centres with e-waste compliance.
6.​ Standardisation: Adopt universal battery sizes, ports, and charging protocols to reduce costs.
7.​ Clean Grid Shift: Align EV push with solar, wind, and green hydrogen integration.
8.​ Policy Stability: Provide a 10–15 year roadmap to attract investment and manufacturing.
9.​ Public Transport Electrification: Focus on e-buses, e-rickshaws, and shared e-mobility to reduce
congestion and emissions.

59
NITI Aayog Recommendations on Electric Vehicles:
1.​ Battery Swapping Infrastructure: Promote battery swapping networks for two-wheelers and
three-wheelers, especially in urban delivery and public transport sectors to reduce downtime and
cost.
2.​ Local Battery Manufacturing: Encourage giga-factories under the PLI for Advanced Chemistry
Cells to reduce import dependence and promote value addition.
3.​ EV-Ready Cities: Create urban clusters with dense charging infrastructure, EV-only lanes, and
low-emission zones in pilot cities.
Economic Survey on EVs:
1.​ Accelerate EV Penetration: India must move swiftly to meet the EV30@30 target (30% new

C
vehicle sales as EVs by 2030), particularly in two- and three-wheeler segments.
2.​ Support Charging Infrastructure: Suggest tax breaks and viability gap funding (VGF) for private

PS
players to set up EV charging infrastructure, especially along highways and Tier-2 cities.

As per UNIDO-

U
d
an
Best Practices-
●​ United Kingdom- Transport decarbonisation plan with commitments and actions to decarbonise
the UK’s transport sector
St

●​ Norway- Exemption from registration tax,No charges on toll roads.

er

Electric Vehicles support India’s progress towards SDG 7, 11, 12, and 13 by promoting clean energy and
sustainable transport. Aligned with the government’s vision of “Sabka Prayas for a Clean and Green
nd

Bharat,” EVs are key to building a self-reliant, low-carbon economy

U

60