Dr.
Boddepalli Govindarao
Hydrothermal ore-forming processes
Active Hydrothermal Vent Site (Black Smoker)
Gold Deposits
Where Does Gold Come From?
• The “late veneer” hypothesis of siderophile metal concentration – an extraterrestrial origin for Au
and Pt?
Schematic representation of the “late veneer” hypothesis for the siderophile (precious) metal
enrichment of the Earth’s lithosphere. During initial segregation of the Earth (to) siderophile metals
were comprehensively partitioned into the Fe–Ni core. Approximately 500 million years later (to +
500Myr) intense meteorite bombardment of the Earth added to the siderophile metal budget of the
Earth’s lithosphere.
Mechanisms behind gold formation
Source
Transport
Precipitation
Trapping
Source Gold and fluids derived Au carried as HS⁻ or Cl⁻
from metamorphic, complexes
magmatic, or basinal
sources
Transport Migration through crustal- Pressure-temperature
scale faults gradients, CO₂-rich fluids
Precipitation Triggered by fluid mixing, Changes in pH, fO₂, or S
wall rock reactions, or activity
boiling
Trapping Deposition in favorable Fault jogs, fold hinges,
structural/chemical sites
Orogenic gold deposits
Often called as
• Greenstone gold
• Archean lode gold
• Shear zone hosted gold deposits
• Orogenic gold deposits
• Greenstone belts are zones of metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences with
associated sedimentary rocks that occur within Archaean and Proterozoic cratons between
granite and gneiss bodies.
• The volcanic rocks range in composition from komatiite to rhyolite but are dominated by
basalt; sedimentary rock types include shale, quartzite, sandstone, and chert.
• Although the metamorphic grade ranges from sub-greenschist to amphibolite facies, greenschist
facies dominates.
• Abundant chlorite and actinolite in greenschist-facies basalts imparts a green color that gives
rise to the name greenstone belt
Source of metals (Au)
• Magma?
• Deepest portion of the Archean crust?
• Greenstone belts?
Possible fluid sources include:
(1) Magmatic fluids from deep granitic intrusions?
(2) Metamorphic fluids released by the dehydration that accompanies the
breakdown of hydrous minerals during amphibolite to granulite facies
Orogenic
metamorphism in the middle to lower crust?
gold fluid
• muscovite + quartz = K-feldspar + sillimanite + H2O, (dehydration) source:
(KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + SiO2 + KAlSi3O8 + Al2SiO5 + H2O Major part
from
• calcite + quartz = wollastonite + CO2 (decarbonation) dehydration
CaCO3 + SiO2 = CaSiO3 + CO2
(3) CO2-rich fluids from a deep crustal source?
(4) Deeply circulating meteoric water?
• Gold is transported as chloride (Cl) or sulfide (HS)
complexes whose stability depends crucially on the
composition, pH and Eh of the fluid. When these
parameters change, the complexes break down and
the metals come out of solution.
✓ gold is preferentially transported as the Au(HS)2−
complex
• Gold precipitates when the boiling of the fluid
causes loss of H2S to the vapour phase, or when it
mixes with cool, oxidized meteoric water or
transfer of S from fluid to wall rock.
• Fe3O4 + 3Au(HS)2- = 3FeS2 + 3 H2O + 3Au
• 3AU(HS)2- + Fe,Mg- Silicates = Au + FeS + Mg-Silicates + H2S
Epithermal Gold Deposits
• The word epithermal comes from the Greek words for “nearby heat” referring to the fact
that epithermal deposits form very close to the surface of the crust, by definition, within a
thousand meters.
• Temperatures at these depths are generally somewhere between 100 - 250 °C and pressures
are much lower and deeper down so the fluids are sometimes able to boil.
• Recent (< 50 M years)
High sulfidation
Low sulfidation
• Fundamental difference between High sulphidation epithermal deposits and low sulfidation
deposits is the amount and degree of interaction between the magmatic fluid, groundwater and
host rocks.
High sulfidation Low sulfidation
• Acidic • Neutral pH (high
• ground water mixing: Less • ground water mixing: high
• Vuggy quartz • Opaline silica
• Disseminated mineralization • Vein mineralization
• Mainly gold (minor Ag, Cu), large, • Mainly gold (Ag, Hg),
low grade Small size, high grade,
• Mineralogy: pyrite, Covellite, • Mineralogy: pyrrhotite,
Chalcopyrite, bornite
arsenopyrite, loellingite
• White clay (Kaolinite, Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄
• Alunite-KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 (altered feldspar)
Carlin-type deposits
• Carlin-type gold deposits, are characterized by
extremely fine-grained nanometer-sized
particles of gold adhered to pyrite over large
areas that can extend to great depths.
• Carlin deposits are named after the little
settlements of Carlin in Northeastern Nevada
• Very big and high grade
• Can be mined by open pit
Nevada gold mine
• Sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits
• Hosted in silty carbonate host rocks.
• Carlin-type ore-fluids are characterised by low fluid temperatures (<250 °C), low
fO2, low salinities and near-neutral pH caused by fluid neutralisation due to the
interaction with the carbonate host rocks
• This enrichment is created by hydrothermal circulation with a temperature of
up to <250 °C.
• Gold present as “invisible gold in pyrite and arsenopyrite”
• Also, gold associated with antimony, mercury and thallium,
