BASICS OF

COMMUNICATION
EC403E – Basics of Communication
Chapter 4: Antenna

Dr. Dinesh N. Bhange

Lecturer (EC)
Govt. Polytechnic, Nagpur
 Learning Outcomes
After completion of this chapter you will be able to:
• Define terms related to Antenna

• Describe Radiation mechanism of Antenna

• Describe ground effect on Antenna

• Describe different types of antennas

 CONTENTS
4.1 Radiation mechanism. construction and radiation pattern.

4.2 Types of antennas. Resonant and non- Dipole arrays, Broad side array, End

resonant antennas fire array, Folded [Link]-uda

4.3 Definitions of :Directive gain directivity, antenna.

Power gain, Antenna resistance , Antenna 4.6. UHF and Microwave antenna:

efficiency,Band width , Beam width , constructional diagram, radiation

Polarization, Effective radiated power, pattern Parabolic Antenna,Turnstile

4.4 Effect of ground on antenna antenna, Rhombic , Horn, loop

4.5 Directional high frequency antenna: antenna

 ANTENNA
• Antenna is a metallic object, often a wire or collection of wire which is used to
perform the following functions:
- It couples the transmitter output to the free space or the received input to the receiver.
- It must be capable of radiating or receiving the electromagnetic waves.
- It converts the high frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. The
transmitting & receiving antennas basically share the same principle and are identical
 Radiation Mechanism

Fig (a) : Radiation from an open circuited transmission line

• The generator is connected on one end whereas the other side i.e. load side is kept
open
 Radiation Mechanism
• At the point of open circuit all the incident energy must ideally be reflected back. But
practically a small portion of the electromagnetic energy escapes from the system i.e.
gets radiated as shown in fig (a).
• This occurs because the lines of force, travelling towards the open circuit must
undergo a complete phase reversal when they reach the point of open circuit.
However all of them are not able to do this as they posses the equivalent to
mechanical inertia. Therefore some of them escape.
• The percentage of the amount of energy radiated of the total energy is very small.
This is due to two reasons:
- The mismatch between the transmission line & the surrounding space which now
acts as the load and
- As the two wires are too close to each other, the radiation from one tip will cancel
the radiation from the other one. This is because they are of opposite polarities and
the distance between them is too small as compared to the wavelength.
Radiation Mechanism: Dipole & Half Wave Dipole

Fig (b) Opened out transmission line Fig (c) Dipole antenna

• To increase the amount of radiated power, the open circuit must be enlarged by
spreading of the two wires as shown in fig (b)
• Due to this arrangement, the coupling between the transmission line & free space
is improved & as the tips have gone away from each other, the amount of
cancellation has reduced.
Radiation Mechanism: Dipole & Half Wave Dipole
• The radiation efficiency will increase further if the two conductors of the transmission

line are bent so as to bring them in the same line as shown in fig (c).

• The electric & magnetic fields are fully coupled to the surrounding space and the

radiation increases to its maximum. This type of radiator is called as a Dipole

• When the total length of the two conductors is (λ/2) i.e. half wavelength, it is called as

the Half Wave Dipole & the radiation further increases.

 TYPES OF ANTENNA
Antennas are classified into two categories as follows:
1. Resonant antenna 2. Non resonant antenna

Resonant Antennas:
• A resonant antenna is a transmission line, the length of which is exactly equal to
multiples of half wavelength (λ/2) and it is open at both ends. So the length of the
resonant antenna can be λ/2, λ, 3λ/2 etc
• The radiation pattern of a λ/2 dipole resonant antenna is typically a figure of eight as
shown in fig. below

Fig: λ/2 dipole resonant antenna : Radiation pattern

Non resonant antennas
• The length of these antennas is not equal to the exact multiple of λ/2
• The non resonant antenna is the one on which the standing wave is not present. The
waves travel only in the forward direction.
• The standing waves are absent because these antennas are terminated in correct
impedance which avoids reflections as shown in fig (b)

Fig (a): A non resonant antennas Fig(b): Non resonant antenna is

: Radiation pattern terminated properly
Non resonant antennas
• The radiation pattern of a non resonant antenna is shown in fig (a). It shows that the
non resonant antenna is a unidirectional antenna.

Drawbacks of non resonant antennas:

- Low gain
- Low efficiency due to power dissipated in the termination.
- They occupy more space
Comparison between resonant and non-resonant antennas
Sr. No. Parameter Resonant antenna Non-resonant antenna
1. Definition It is a transmission It is a transmission line
line of length equal whose length is not a
to multiples of λ/2 multiple of λ/2
and open at both
ends
2. Termination These are open at These are terminated
both ends. properly.
3. Reflections Standing wave Standing wave absent
present
4. Radiation pattern Figure of 8 Uni-directional
 Important Definitions
• Directive gain
Directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density in a particular
direction of one antenna to the power density that would be radiated by an
omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna). The power density of both types of
antenna is measured at a specified distance, and a comparative ratio is
established.
The gain of a Hertzian dipole with respect to an isotropic antenna =
1.5:1
power (1.5 (10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10) = 1.76 dB).
The gain of a half-wave dipole compared to the isotropic antenna=
1.64:1

power (1.64 (10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10) = 2.15 dB).

 Important Definitions
• Directivity and power gain (ERP)
Power gain is a comparison of the output power of an antenna in a certain direction to
that of an isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna is power ratio comparison between an
omnidirectional and unidirectional radiator. This ratio can be expressed as:
𝑷𝟐
𝐴 𝑑𝐵 = 𝟏𝟎𝑙𝑜𝑔10( )
𝑷𝟏

where A(dB) = antenna gain in decibels

P1 = power of unidirectional antenna
P2 = power of reference antenna
• Antenna resistance
Radiation resistance is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of
the current at the feed point.
• Bandwidth
The term bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies the antenna will radiate
effectively.
 Important Definitions
• Beamwidth
The beamwidth of an antenna is called as

the angles created by comparing the half-

power points (3 dB) on the main radiation

lobe to its maximum power point. The

beam angle is 30°, which is the sum of the

two angles created at the points where the

field strength drops to 0.707 of the

maximum voltage at the center of the lobe.

 Important Definitions
• Polarization
Polarization of an antenna refers to the direction in space of the E field
(electric vector) portion of the electromagnetic wave being radiated by the
transmitting system.

Fig. Polarization of the antenna showing E and M fields.

 Important Definitions
Antenna:
The antenna resistance has two components:

- Radiation resistance

- Resistance due to the actual losses in the antenna.

Radiation resistance:

It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of the current
at the input of the antenna (at the feed point).

Rr = Pt / I2
where, Rr = Radiated power by the antenna
I = Current at the feed point.
 Important Definitions
The power losses can take place due to the following reasons
- Power dissipated in the antenna and ground resistance
- Losses due to the corona effect
- Losses in the imperfect dielectrics very near to antenna.
- Eddy current losses in the metallic objects near to antenna.

Antenna Efficiency:
The antenna efficiency is given by,

η = Rr/(Rr + Rd)
Here (Rr + Rd) is the total resistance of the antenna
 Ungrounded Antennas
• When the antenna is very close to the
ground, its radiation pattern gets
modified on account of reflections from
the ground.
• An image antenna is visualized to exist
below the earth's surface and is a true
mirror image of the actual antenna.
• When a wave is reflected, its polarity is
changed by 180°. If direct and reflected
waves of equal magnitude and phase
angle are received at exactly the same
time, the two signals will cancel each
other.
Fig. Ungrounded antenna and Image
 Grounded Antennas
• If an antenna is grounded,
the earth still acts as a mirror
and becomes part of the
radiating system.
• Fig(a). shows a grounded
quarter-wave vertical radiator
effectively has a quarter-
wavelength added to it by its
image. Fig(b). shows the
voltage and current
distributions on such a
Fig (a) Fig (b)
grounded λ/4 antenna called
Fig (a): Antenna and Image
Marconi antenna.
Fig (b): Voltage and Current Distribution
 Directional High Frequency Antennas
Dipole arrays:
It is a radiation system which consists of grouped radiators or elements as shown in fig, (a)
• These elements are placed
close together. So that they
will remain within each
others induction number.
• So they interact with each
other & produce a resulting
radiation pattern.
• The gain of such a structure
is generally higher than 50.
• The radiating element is
connected to the output of
the transmitter & is called
Fig(a): Driven and parasitic elements in an array as the driven element
• The elements which are not connected to the transmitter output are known as the parasitic
elements. The parasitic elements are directors or reflectors. Those which are longer than the
driven element are called as reflectors whereas those which are shorter than the driven
elements are called as directors.
 Directional High Frequency Antennas
Turnstile array:
It is possible to obtain an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane by using the
turnstile array as shown in fig (b). Such an array is generally used for TV broadcasting.

Fig (b): Horizontal dipole turnstile, radiation pattern and stacked array
 Broad side Array

• Number of dipoles of equal size, equally spaced along a straight line with all dipoles fed in
the same phase from the ·same source. Such an arrangement is called a broadside array.
• The broadside array is strongly directional at right angles to the plane of the array.
• The individual radiations, already quite strong in that direction, are reinforced. In the
direction of the plane, there is little radiation, because the dipoles do not radiate in the
direction in which they point, and because of cancellation in the direction of the line joining
the center.
• Typical antenna lengths in the broadside array are from 2 to 10 wavelengths, typical
spacings are λ/2 or λ.
 End-fire Array

• In end-fire array the magnitude of the

current in each element is same as in every
other element, there is a phase difference
between these currents.
• There is a phase lag between the
succeeding elements equal in hertz to their
spacing in wavelengths.
• There is no radiation at right angles to
the plane of the array because of
cancellation.

• A point is equidistant from all the elements, but now the first and third dipoles are fed out of
phase and therefore cancel each other's radiation, as do the second and fourth dipoles, and so
on.
• With the usual dipole spacing of λ/4 or 3λ/4,there will be cancellation at right angles to the
plane of the array and in direction from right to left.
Folded Dipole
• The folded dipole is a single antenna, it
consists of two elements. The first is fed
directly while the second is coupled
inductively at the ends.
• The radiation pattern of the folded dipole is
the same as that of a straight dipole, but its
input impedance is greater.
• If the total current fed in is I and the two
arms have equal diameters, then the current
in each arm is I/2.
• If the same power applied, only half the
current flows in the first arm, and the input
impedance is four times that of the straight
dipole.
• It has high input impedance and greater
bandwidth.
Yagi-Uda Antenna
• A Yagi-Uda antenna is an array consisting of a
driven element and one or more parasitic
elements. They are arranged collinearly and
close together.

• It is unidirectional, it has a moderate gain in

the vicinity of 7 dB, the Yagi antenna is used as
an HF transmitting antenna and VHF television
receiving antenna.

• The back lobe of radiation pattern may be

reduced, and thus front to back ratio of the
antenna improved, by bringing the radiators
closer.

• The precise effect of the parasitic element

depends on its distance and tuning, i.e. on the
magnitude and phase of the current induced in
it.
 UHF and Microwave Antenna
• Parabolic Reflector • The parabola is a plane curve, defined as the locus of a point
which moves so that it distance from another point (called the
focus) plus its distance from a straight line (directrix) is constant.
• A parabola CAD whose focus is at F and whose axis is AB. From
the definition of parabola,
FP + PP' = FQ + QQ' = FR + RR' = k
where k = a constant, which may be changed if a different shape
of parabola is required, AF = focal length of the parabola
• The ratio of the focal length to the mouth diameter (AF/CD) is
called the aperture of the parabola, as in camera lenses.
Consider a source of radiation placed at the focus. All waves
coming from the source and reflected by the parabola will have
traveled the same distance by the time they reach the directrix.
All such waves will be in phase.
• As a result, radiation is very strong and concentrated along the
AB axis, but cancellation will take place in any other direction,
because of path-length differences.
• Parabolic reflector is used as high gain antennas for point to
point communication, wireless WAN/LAN links for data
communication, satellite communication and spacecraft
communication antennas.
Rhombic Antennas
• The rhombic antenna consists of non-
resonant elements. It is a planar rhombus in
which a piece of parallel-wire transmission
line bowed in the middle. The lengths of the
(equal) radiators vary from 2 to 8λ, and the
radiation angle ϕ varies from 40 to 75°.
• The two sets as a transmission line correctly
terminated in its characteristic impedance.
Only forward waves are present. Since the
termination absorbs some power, the
rhombic antenna must be terminated by a
resistor which, for transmission is capable
of absorbing about one-third of the power
fed to the antenna.
 Rhombic Antennas
• The input impedance varies from 650 to 700 Ω. The directivity of the rhombic
varies from about 20 to 90°,
• The power gain of this antenna ranges from about 15 to 60°. The radiation
pattern is unidirectional.
• It is suitable for HF transmission and reception. It is used in commercial point
to point communication.
 Horn Antenna
• The sectoral horn flares out in one direction
only and is the equivalent of the pillbox
parabolic reflector. The pyramidal horn flares
out in both directions and has the shape of a
truncated pyramid. The conical horn is similar
to it and is thus a logical termination for a
circular waveguide.
• If the flare angle ϕ is too small, the wavefront
leaving the horn will be spherical rather than
plane, and the radiated beam will not be
directive.
• ϕ varies from 40° when L/λ= 6, at which the
beamwidth in the plane of the horn in 66° and
the maximum directive gain is 40, to 15° when
L/λ= 50, for which beamwidth is 23° and gain
is 120.
Fig. Horn antennas • The use of a pyramidal or conical horn will
(a) Sectoral; (b) pyramidal; improve overall directivity because flare is
(c) circular. now in more than one direction.
 Loop Antenna
• A loop antenna is a single-turn coil
carrying RF current. Thus the loop is
surrounded by a magnetic field everywhere
perpendicular to the loop. The directional
pattern is independent of the exact shape of
the loop and is identical to that of an
Fig (a): Loop Antenna
elementary doublet.
• The circular and square loops have the
same radiation pattern as a short horizontal
dipole unlike a horizontal dipole, a vertical
loop is vertically polarized.
• The loop antenna suitable for direction
Fig (b): Directional pattern of a loop
finding (OF) applications.
antenna