Shiro.

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SEM 3-1

SHIR0

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UNIT-1
1(a). List out the layers in OSI reference model ( 1 mark).

1. Physical layer
2. Data Link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

1(b). What is Redundancy? (1mark).

Redundancy refers to the addition of extra bits or duplicate information used for error detection and correction in
data communication.
It helps ensure that even if data gets corrupted during transmission, errors can be detected and sometimes
corrected.

1(C). Explain various types of Network Topologies and Explain in detail. (5 mark)

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1(d). Explain Various Transmission modes in computer networks (5 marks)

Transmission mode refers to the direction in which data flows between two communicating devices.
There are three main transmission modes:

1. Simplex Mode

 Communication is one-way only.

 One device sends, the other only receives.
 Example: Keyboard to CPU, TV broadcast.
 Used where no response is needed.

2. Half-Duplex Mode

 Communication is two-way but not at the same time.

 Devices take turns: one transmits while the other receives.
 Example: Walkie-talkies, CB radios.
 Efficient where feedback is necessary but simultaneous transmission is not required.

3. Full-Duplex Mode

 Communication is two-way simultaneously.

 Both devices can send and receive at the same time.
 Example: Telephone communication, Modern computer networks.
 Increases efficiency and speed since data flows both ways without waiting.

Conclusion

Thus, transmission modes control how information travels between devices.

They determine whether data moves in one direction, alternate directions, or both directions
simultaneously, making them essential for designing communication systems.

2(a) Define Protocol. (1 Mark)

A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that governs data communication between devices,
ensuring they understand each other during transmission.

2(b) Write any four reasons for using layered protocols. (1 Mark)

Four reasons for using layered protocols are:

1. Simplifies design and troubleshooting

2. Provides modularity (each layer has a specific function)
3. Promotes interoperability and standardization
4. Enables easy updates and scalability

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2(C) Compare TCP/IP and OSI reference model. (5 Mark)

Feature OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model

7 layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, 4 layers (Network Interface, Internet,
Layers
Transport, Session, Presentation, Application)
Transport, Application)
DARPA/DoD (US Department of
Developed by ISO (International Standards Organization)
Defense)
Theoretical/ideal model used for Practical model used for real-world
Approach
understanding networks networking
Transport Layer Defines connection-oriented and connectionless Uses TCP (connection-oriented) and
Protocols service, not specific protocols UDP (connectionless)
Layering Clear and strict separation of functions in each Functions may overlap between
Structure layer layers
Application Presentation and Session functions
Separate Presentation and Session layers
Support merged into Application layer
Mostly used for conceptual learning and Used for actual Internet
Usage
standard reference communication

Summary Statement

OSI explains how networking should work, whereas TCP/IP shows how networking actually works in
real networks and the Internet.

2(d) . Explain in detail about Guided media with neat diagrams. (5 Mark)

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3(a) Define Hub. (1 Mark)

A hub is a networking device that connects multiple computers in a LAN and broadcasts incoming
data to all connected devices.

3(b) List Protocols of Application Layer (1 Mark)

 HTTP
 FTP
 SMTP
 DNS

3(c) Give the performance, applications merits and demerits of Fiber-optic cable. (5 marks)

Performance

Fiber-optic cable provides very high data transmission speed using light signals.
It supports long-distance communication with minimal signal loss and extremely high bandwidth.

Applications

Fiber-optic cables are used in:

✔ Internet backbone networks
✔ Telecommunications systems
✔ Cable TV distribution
✔ Medical imaging and sensors
✔ High-speed LAN and WAN connections

Merits (Advantages)

1. High bandwidth and data rate

2. Very low signal attenuation (loss)
3. Immune to electromagnetic interference
4. Highly secure and difficult to tap
5. Lightweight and durable

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Demerits (Disadvantages)

1. Expensive installation and hardware

2. Requires skilled technicians for maintenance
3. Fragile compared to metal cables
4. Difficult to splice and repair

3(d) Explain about framing in Datalink Layer with example. (5 marks)

Definition

Framing is a Data Link Layer technique used to divide a data stream into manageable units called frames.
It ensures that messages sent over the network can be identified, separated, and checked for errors.

How It Works?

 The sender adds a header and trailer to each data block

 Receiver identifies the start and end of each frame

A Basic Frame Format

| Header | Data | Trailer |

✔ Header = address, control info

✔ Data = actual user message
✔ Trailer = error detection bits (CRC)

Example

Suppose sender wants to transmit:

HELLO

It will be framed as:

| Start Flag | Address | HELLO | CRC | End Flag |

At the receiver:

 Start & End flags indicate frame boundaries

 CRC verifies whether data is received correctly

Methods of Framing

1. Character Counting
2. Byte Stuffing
3. Bit Stuffing
4. Flag-based framing

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Purpose of Framing

✔ Detect frame boundaries

✔ Provide error control
✔ Support flow control & reliable transmission

4(a) What are the design issues of Data link Layer. (1 mark)

Major design issues of the Data Link Layer include:

✔ Framing
✔ Error control
✔ Flow control
✔ Addressing
✔ Reliable delivery

4(b) What is Parity Check? Explain its types. (1 Mark)

Parity check is an error detection method that adds an extra bit (parity bit) to data to detect errors during
transmission.

Types of Parity:

1. Even Parity: Parity bit is set so total 1s become even.

2. Odd Parity: Parity bit is set so total 1s become odd.

4(C.) Explain about the functionality of each layer in OSI reference model with a neat sketch. (10 Marks)

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5 (a) Explain various Wireless transmission media (1 mark)

Wireless transmission media include:
✔ Radio waves
✔ Microwaves
✔ Infrared waves
✔ Satellite communication
These media transmit data without physical cables using electromagnetic signals.
5 (b) Define flow control and error control. (1 mark)
Flow Control:
Flow control ensures that the sender does not transmit data faster than the receiver can process it.
Error Control:
Error control refers to techniques for detecting and correcting errors during data transmission to ensure
reliable communication.

5 (C) List the different types of error detection methods? Explain the CRC error detection technique using
generator polynomial x4+x3 +1 and data 11100011 (10 marks)

1. Different Types of Error Detection Methods (5 Marks)

The commonly used error detection techniques are:

1. Parity Check
o Adds a parity bit (even/odd) to detect single-bit errors
2. Checksum
o Data is summed and complemented; receiver recomputes to detect errors
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
o Uses polynomial division to detect burst errors
4. Two-Dimensional Parity
o Adds parity bits row-wise and column-wise
5. Hamming Code
o Detects and corrects errors using redundant bits

2. CRC Error Detection Technique Using

Generator polynomial: x⁴ + x³ + 1

Data: 11100011

Step 1: Convert generator polynomial to binary

Polynomial:

𝑥 +𝑥 +1

Binary form (degrees present: 4, 3, 0):

𝐺 = 11001

Step 2: Append zeros to data

Degree of generator = 4 → append 4 zeros:

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Original data: 11100011
Augmented data:

11100011 0 000 = 111000110000

Step 3: Perform Mod-2 Division (XOR Division)

Dividend: 111000110000
Divisor: 11001

Division Process

✔ Take first 5 bits: 11100

11100 ⊕ 11001 = 00101

Sequence becomes:
001010110000

✔ Next valid section: 10101

10101 ⊕ 11001 = 01100

Sequence becomes:
000110010000

✔ Next valid section: 11001

11001 ⊕ 11001 = 00000

Sequence becomes:
000000000000

Step 4: Remainder / CRC Bits

Degree of generator = 4 → CRC remainder length = 4 bits

Final remainder =

0000

Step 5: Final Transmitted Codeword

Data + CRC = 11100011 0 000

So the codeword is:

111000110000

✔ CRC divides the data + zeros by a polynomial

✔ The remainder is appended as error-checking bits
✔ Receiver re-divides:
- If remainder = 0 → No error
- If remainder ≠ 0 → Error detected

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6(A). What is Framing? (1 mark)

Framing is the process of dividing a continuous data stream into small fixed-size units called frames for reliable
transmission in the Data Link Layer.
6(B). List out the Network Hardware. (1 marks)

Network hardware includes:

✔ Hub ✔ Switch ✔ Router ✔ Bridge ✔ Repeater

6(C) Explain Checksum with example? (10 marks)

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UNIT-2
1(a) Explain Piggybacking. (1 mark)
Piggybacking is a technique in data communication where acknowledgment (ACK) frames are combined with
outgoing data frames instead of sending them separately, reducing overhead and improving efficiency.
1(b) What is Jamming Signal? (1 Mark)
A jamming signal is a short broadcast signal used in CSMA/CD networks (like Ethernet) to indicate that a
collision has occurred, forcing all stations to stop transmission and retry.

1(C.) Explain Stop and Wait ARQ for noisy Channel. (5 Marks)

1(d) Compare GO-Back-N ARQ and selective-repeat ARQ protocols. (5 marks)

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2 (a) What is Collision? What happens when a collision occurs: (1 mark)

A collision occurs when two or more devices transmit data on a shared network channel at the same time, causing the
signals to interfere.
When a collision occurs, the transmission is aborted, and the devices wait for a random time before retransmitting.
2 (b) What is the purpose of Hamming code? (1 mark)
The purpose of Hamming code is to detect and correct single-bit errors in data transmission by adding redundant
parity bits.
2 (C) Explain about Go-Back-N sliding window protocol. (5 marks)

Go-Back-N is an automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol used for reliable data transmission in networks. It allows
multiple frames to be sent before receiving acknowledgments, improving efficiency over stop-and-wait.

Key Features
1. Sender Window
o Sender can send up to N frames without waiting for an ACK.
o Frames are stored until they are acknowledged.
2. Receiver Window
o Receiver accepts only the next expected frame.
o If an out-of-order frame arrives, it is discarded.
3. Acknowledgements (ACKs)
o Cumulative ACKs:
One ACK acknowledges all correctly received frames up to a point.

Working of Go-Back-N
✔ The sender transmits frames 0,1,2,3… up to window size N.
✔ If frame k is lost or damaged:

 Receiver discards frame k+1, k+2, etc.

 Receiver only sends ACK for frame k.

✔ When timeout occurs:

 Sender goes back and retransmits frame k and all frames after it.

Hence, the name Go-Back-N.

Example
If frames sent are: 0 1 2 3 4
Suppose frame 2 is lost:

 Receiver acknowledges only up to frame 1

 Sender times out and retransmits 2, 3, 4

Advantages
✔ Better efficiency than Stop-and-Wait
✔ High throughput when errors are low

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Disadvantages
✘ If one frame is lost, multiple frames need retransmission
✘ Wastage of bandwidth in high-error networks

Conclusion
Go-Back-N is a reliable ARQ protocol that improves performance by sending multiple frames at once, but it
retransmits many frames on error, making it suitable when channel error rates are low.

2(D) Explain HDLC Protocol in detail. (5 marks)

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3(a). Explain why there is no need for CSMA/CD on a Full-duplex Ethernet LAN (1 mark)
There is no need for CSMA/CD in full-duplex Ethernet because devices can transmit and receive simultaneously on
separate channels, meaning collisions never occur.
3(b). List the frame types in HDLC. (1 mark)
The three frame types in HDLC are:
✔ Information (I) frames
✔ Supervisory (S) frames
✔ Unnumbered (U) frames
3(C). Explain in detail CSMA/CD for channel allocation. (5marks)

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3(D) Explain about wireless LAN. (5 marks)

4(a). Differentiate Persistent and Non-persistent CSMA. ( 1 mark)

 Persistent CSMA:
A station keeps sensing the channel and transmits immediately when it becomes idle.
 Non-persistent CSMA:
A station waits a random time after sensing a busy channel before rechecking, reducing
collisions.

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4(b). Write any two Collision-free protocols. (1mark).

Two collision-free protocols are:

✔ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
✔ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

4(C). Describe the ALOHA protocol and explain pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA with efficiency
calculations. (1 mark)

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5(a) List the classification of Multiple access protocols. (1 Mark)

Multiple access protocols are classified as:

✔ Random Access Protocols
✔ Controlled Access Protocols
✔ Channelization Protocols

5(b) Define Virtual LANs. (1 Mark)

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of devices within a network that are configured to
communicate as if they were on the same physical LAN, regardless of their actual physical location.

5(C) Explain in detail CSMA/CA for channel allocation. (10 Mark)

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6(a) What is Contention Window? (1 Mark)

A contention window is the time interval range within which a network device randomly selects a
waiting time before retransmitting to avoid collisions in CSMA/CA networks.

6(b) What is Back-off time? (1 Mark)

Back-off time is the random waiting time chosen by a device before attempting retransmission after a
collision, helping reduce future collisions.

6(c) Explain about Selective Repeat sliding window protocol with a neat diagram. (10 marks)

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UNIT-3
1(a) List out the Design issues of Network layer. (1 mark)

Design issues of the Network Layer include:

✔ Routing
✔ Congestion control
✔ Internetworking
✔ Addressing
✔ Packet forwarding

1(b) What is ARP? (1 Mark)

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a network protocol used to map an IP address to its
corresponding MAC address in a local network.

1(C.) Explain the concept of Token Bucket algorithm with neat diagram. (5 Marks)

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1(d) Explain about the Hierarchical Routing algorithm. (5 marks)

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2 (a) Differentiate Broadcast and Multicast Routing. (1 mark)

 Broadcast Routing: Sends a packet to all nodes in the network.

 Multicast Routing: Sends a packet to a selected group of nodes (specific recipients only).
2 (b) What are the advantages and limitations of flooding? (1 mark)

Advantages:
✔ Simple and guarantees packet delivery (if paths exist)
Limitations:
✘ Causes excessive network traffic and duplicate packets, leading to congestion.

2 (C) Explain IP Addresses in detail with Subnetting. (5 marks)

1. IP Address Overview
An IP address is a unique 32-bit identifier assigned to each device in a network for communication.
It is divided into:

 Network ID → identifies the network

 Host ID → identifies the device in that network

Example: [Link]

2. Classes of IP Address
Class Range
Class A [Link] – [Link]
Class B [Link] – [Link]
Class C [Link] – [Link]

Each class reserves bits for network and host portions.

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3. Need for Subnetting

Subnetting divides a single network into multiple smaller sub-networks (subnets).
Benefits:
✔ Better security
✔ Efficient IP address utilization
✔ Easier network management

4. How Subnetting Works

We borrow bits from the host portion to create subnets.
Each borrowed bit doubles number of subnets.

Example:
Class C address: [Link]
Default mask: [Link] (/24)

If we borrow 2 bits:

 New Mask: [Link] (/26)

 Number of subnets: 2^2 = 4
 Hosts per subnet: 2^6 – 2 = 62

So the network becomes 4 subnets:

1. [Link] – 63
2. [Link] – 127
3. [Link] – 191
4. [Link] – 255

5. Subnet Mask
A subnet mask identifies which part of an IP address is network and which is host.

Example:

IP: [Link]
Mask: [Link]

Mask bits (1 = network, 0 = host):

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

6. Conclusion
IP addresses uniquely identify devices, while subnetting divides networks into smaller logical segments to improve
routing efficiency, management, and performance.

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2(D) With the help of an example, explain Dijkstra’s shortest path routing algorithm. (5 marks)

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3(a). What is Non-adaptive Routing? (1 mark)

Non-adaptive routing (static routing) uses fixed routes that do not change based on network
conditions, meaning the routing decisions remain constant.

3(b). What is Multiplexing? Give different types of multiplexing? (1 mark)

Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple signals and transmits them over a single
communication channel.

Types of multiplexing:
✔ FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
✔ TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
✔ WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)

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3(C). Discuss about concept of Leaky bucket algorithm with neat diagram. (5marks)

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3(D) Explain the difference between connection oriented and Connectionless services. (5 marks).

Network communication services can be grouped into connection-oriented and connectionless based on
how data is delivered.

1. Connection-Oriented Service
Definition

A service in which a communication path is established before data transfer.

Characteristics

✔ Requires setup phase (handshaking)

✔ Ensures reliable delivery
✔ Packets arrive in order
✔ Provides acknowledgement, flow control, and error control

Example

 TCP
 Telephone system

2. Connectionless Service
Definition

A service where no prior connection setup occurs; packets are sent independently.

Characteristics

✔ No handshaking before communication

✔ Unreliable delivery (no guarantees)
✔ Packets may arrive out of order
✔ Faster but less reliable

Example

 UDP
 Postal mail system

3. Tabular Comparison
Feature Connection-Oriented Connectionless
Setup Requires connection No connection setup
Reliability Reliable, guaranteed Unreliable
Ordering Packets arrive in sequence Packets may be disordered
Overhead Higher Lower
Examples TCP, Telephone UDP, SMS

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Conclusion
Connection-oriented services prioritize reliability through established communication paths, while
connectionless services focus on speed and simplicity by sending packets independently.

4(a). What is Tunneling? ( 1 mark)

Tunneling is a method of encapsulating one network protocol packet inside another to securely
transport data across incompatible or private networks.

4(b). Differentiate Open loop and closed loop Congestion control. (1mark).

 Open-loop Congestion Control:

Prevents congestion before it occurs using design techniques (no feedback from network).
 Closed-loop Congestion Control:
Controls congestion after it occurs by using feedback from the network to adjust traffic.

4(C). Explain the IPV4 Header. (10 mark)

The IPv4 header is a 20–60 byte structure added to every IP packet containing essential control and
addressing information for routing and delivery.

It consists of several fields:

1. Version (4 bits)
Specifies IP version — for IPv4, value = 4.

2. Header Length (IHL – 4 bits)

Indicates the length of the header in 32-bit words (minimum 20 bytes).

3. Type of Service / DSCP (8 bits)

Defines packet priority and handling (delay, throughput, reliability).

4. Total Length (16 bits)

Specifies entire datagram size (header + data) in bytes; maximum = 65,535 bytes.

5. Identification (16 bits)

A unique value used to identify fragments of a packet.

6. Flags (3 bits)
Control fragmentation

 DF = Don’t Fragment
 MF = More Fragments

7. Fragment Offset (13 bits)

Shows position of a fragment relative to original packet.

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8. Time-to-Live (TTL – 8 bits)

Limits packet lifetime in network to prevent looping; decreases at each hop.

9. Protocol (8 bits)
Indicates which transport layer protocol is encapsulated:

 TCP (6)
 UDP (17)

10. Header Checksum (16 bits)

Used to detect errors in the header.

11. Source Address (32 bits)

IP address of sending device.

12. Destination Address (32 bits)

IP address of receiving device.

13. Options (0–40 bytes)

Optional field for security, route recording, and timestamp.

14. Padding
Extra bits added to make header length a multiple of 32 bits.

Diagram of IPv4 Header

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Summary
The IPv4 header carries:
✔ Addressing information
✔ Fragmentation data
✔ Routing control
✔ Error checking

It enables reliable delivery and forwarding of packets across networks.

5(a) List out the causes of Congestion. (1 Mark)

Common causes of congestion include:

✔ High traffic load
✔ Insufficient bandwidth
✔ Slow processing / buffer overflow
✔ Bursty traffic patterns

5(b) What is Count-to-infinity problem? In which routing algorithm does it occur? What routing algorithm resolves
this? (1 Mark)

 Count-to-infinity problem:
It is a routing issue where routers continuously increase hop counts for unreachable networks,
leading to slow convergence.
 Occurs in:
✔ Distance Vector Routing
 Resolved by:
✔ Link State Routing (or techniques like Split Horizon)

5(C) Define Routing. Explain Distance Vector Routing Algorithm with an example. (10 Mark)

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6(a) What is the need for DHCP? Explain. (1 Mark)

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is needed to automatically assign IP addresses and
network configuration settings to devices, avoiding manual configuration and reducing errors.

6(b) Define Internetworking? List out the internetworking devices. (1 Mark)

Internetworking:

Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks together to communicate as a single larger network.

Internetworking Devices:

✔ Repeater
✔ Bridge
✔ Switch
✔ Router
✔ Gateway

6(c) Explain the concept of Quality of Service (QoS) and traffic shaping in detail. (10 marks)

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UNIT-4
1(a) Define Socket Address. (1 mark)

A socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number that uniquely identifies a
communication endpoint in a network.

1(b) Explain Fast Retransmission or Retransmission Timer. (1 Mark)

Fast Retransmission is a TCP mechanism where a sender retransmits a lost packet before timeout by
detecting duplicate acknowledgements.

1(C.) Explain in detail the elements of transport layer. (5 Marks)

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1(d) Compare and contrast TCP and UDP Protocols. (5 marks)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are Transport Layer protocols that differ in
reliability and communication style.

1. Connection Method
 TCP: Connection-oriented (requires handshaking before data transfer).
 UDP: Connectionless (no setup; data sent directly).

2. Reliability
 TCP: Reliable — ensures delivery with acknowledgements, retransmission, and flow control.
 UDP: Unreliable — no acknowledgements or retransmissions.

3. Ordering of Data
 TCP: Ensures packets arrive in correct order.
 UDP: No ordering guarantee — packets may arrive out of sequence.

4. Error Handling
 TCP: Performs error checking, correction, congestion control.
 UDP: Performs only basic error checking; no correction.

5. Speed and Overhead

 TCP: Slower due to overhead of reliability features.
 UDP: Faster and lightweight — useful for time-sensitive applications.

6. Applications
 TCP: Web browsing (HTTP), Email (SMTP), File transfer (FTP).
 UDP: Video streaming, VoIP, Online gaming, DNS.

Tabular Comparison

Feature TCP UDP

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

Reliability Reliable Unreliable
Ordering Guaranteed No guarantee

Overhead High Low

Speed Slower Faster

Applications Web, email, file transfer Streaming, gaming, DNS

Conclusion

TCP is suited for reliable communication, while UDP is used where speed and efficiency are more important than
guaranteed delivery.
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2 (a) What is the function of transport layer? (1 mark)

The transport layer provides end-to-end communication, reliability, flow control, error control, and
data segmentation between devices in a network.

2 (b) Define Silly window syndrome. (1 mark)

Silly Window Syndrome is a performance problem in TCP where very small segments are repeatedly
sent due to inefficient flow control, leading to poor network utilization.

2 (C) What are the services provided by transport layer to the upper layers? (5 marks)

2(D) Illustrate and Describe three-way Handshake protocol supported with neat figures. (5 marks)

The Three-Way Handshake is a TCP connection establishment process used between a client and server to
create a reliable communication link.

It uses three messages: SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK.

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Steps in Three-Way Handshake

Step 1: Client → Server (SYN)

The client sends a SYN (Synchronize) packet to the server requesting connection and indicating its initial
sequence number.

Meaning: “I want to start communication.”

Step 2: Server → Client (SYN-ACK)

The server responds with a SYN-ACK (Synchronize + Acknowledgment) packet.

Meaning: “I received your request, and I am ready. Here is my initial sequence number.”

Step 3: Client → Server (ACK)

The client sends an ACK (Acknowledgement) packet back to confirm receipt.

Meaning: “I acknowledge your sequence number. Connection established.”

After this, communication begins.

Neat Diagram

Purpose of Three-Way Handshake

✔ Establishes synchronization between sender and receiver
✔ Negotiates initial sequence numbers
✔ Confirms both sides are ready to communicate

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Conclusion
The Three-Way Handshake ensures reliable TCP communication by exchanging SYN, SYN-ACK, and
ACK messages, making sure both parties are synchronized before data transfer.

3(a). What are the disadvantages of UDP? (1 mark)

Disadvantages of UDP:
✔ Unreliable delivery (no acknowledgements)
✔ No flow control or congestion control
✔ Packets may arrive out of order or be lost

3(b). List and describe the service primitives of transport layer. (1 mark)

Transport layer service primitives include:

✔ CONNECT – establishes a connection
✔ SEND – transmits data
✔ RECEIVE – accepts incoming data
✔ DISCONNECT – terminates the connection

3(C). Explain the UDP and its characteristics. (5marks)

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3(D) Explain briefly about Tunneling with an example. (5 marks)

1. Definition
Tunneling is a networking technique in which one protocol packet is encapsulated inside another protocol packet
to allow secure or compatible transmission across different networks.

It creates a virtual tunnel through which data travels as if the networks were directly connected.

2. Why Tunneling is Needed?

✔ To transmit data across incompatible or private networks
✔ To secure data by encapsulating it
✔ To allow support for virtual private networks (VPNs)

3. How Tunneling Works?

1. The original packet is wrapped (encapsulated) inside another packet.
2. It travels through the intermediate network.
3. At the destination, the wrapper is removed (decapsulation) and the original packet is delivered.

4. Example of Tunneling
VPN (Virtual Private Network)

 A company has remote employees working from home.

 Their device forms a VPN tunnel to the office network.
 Data packets from the employee computer are encapsulated inside another IP packet and sent securely across
the internet.

5. Advantages of Tunneling
✔ Supports secure communication
✔ Allows protocol compatibility
✔ Enables private network access over public internet

Conclusion
Tunneling enables one network protocol to be carried inside another, allowing secure and seamless communication
across different types of networks, commonly used in VPNs and IPv6-over-IPv4 transport.

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4(a). Write about the Transport Service Primitives. ( 1 mark)

Transport service primitives are basic operations used to establish, send, receive, and terminate
communication between processes.
Examples include:
✔ CONNECT
✔ SEND
✔ RECEIVE
✔ DISCONNECT

4(b). Define Jitter. (1mark).

Jitter is the variation or delay fluctuation in packet arrival time during data transmission, which
affects real-time applications like voice or video.

4(C). Explain the TCP segment Header and features of TCP. (1 mark)

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5(a) Explain TPDU with a neat figure. (1 Mark)

TPDU (Transport Protocol Data Unit) is the data packet used at the transport layer, containing user
data plus transport layer control information like sequence numbers and addressing.

Neat Text Figure

+-------------------------------+
| Transport Layer Header |
+-------------------------------+
| User Data |
+-------------------------------+
= TPDU
5(b) Explain briefly about the types of Static buffer allocation (1 Mark)

Static buffer allocation assigns fixed buffer space before transmission begins.
Types include:
✔ Single Buffer – One buffer used for all data.
✔ Double Buffer – Two alternating buffers used for continuous data handling.

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5(C) Explain in detail about TCP Connection Management. (10 Mark)

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UNIT-5
1(a) What is DNS? Write its properties. (1 mark)

DNS (Domain Name System) is a naming service that converts human-readable domain names into IP
addresses.

Properties:
✔ Distributed database
✔ Hierarchical (tree-structured) naming
✔ Provides fast name-to-IP resolution

1(b) List various Application layer protocols. (1 Mark)

Application layer protocols include:

✔ HTTP
✔ FTP
✔ SMTP
✔ DNS
✔ TELNET

1(C.) Explain briefly about DNS. Give Example. (5 Marks)

Introduction
DNS (Domain Name System) is a distributed hierarchical naming system used on the internet to map
human-readable domain names to machine-readable IP addresses.

Need for DNS

Humans remember names like [Link], but computers communicate using IP addresses like
[Link].
DNS automatically translates names to IPs, making internet usage simpler.

How DNS Works?

1. User enters a website name in browser (e.g., [Link]).
2. DNS resolver contacts DNS servers in hierarchy:
✔ Root Server
✔ Top Level Domain (TLD) server (.com, .in)
✔ Authoritative server
3. The IP address is returned to browser.
4. Browser contacts the server using that IP.

Example
Typing [Link] → DNS resolves it to something like [Link], allowing connection.

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Conclusion
DNS is essential for internet communication as it acts like a phone book, converting domain names to IP
addresses automatically.

1(d) Explain in detail about Management Components of SNMP. (5 marks)

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used for monitoring and managing devices like routers,
switches, and servers.

It contains three main management components:

1. SNMP Manager
 Central controller (usually software installed on a network management workstation).
 Sends queries, collects data from devices, and displays network status.
 Initiates control operations like configuration updates.

2. SNMP Agent
 Software running on network devices (routers, switches, servers).
 Monitors local device information like CPU load, bandwidth usage, temperature.
 Responds to manager requests and sends alerts.

3. Management Information Base (MIB)

 A structured database of objects managed by the SNMP system.
 Stores information such as device name, status, uptime, traffic counters.
 Organized in hierarchical format (tree-like structure).

Conclusion
SNMP management works using an SNMP Manager, Agent, and MIB database.
It helps administrators monitor, control, and troubleshoot network devices efficiently.

2 (a) What is the function of Application layer? (1 mark)

The Application layer provides services and interfaces to end-users and applications, enabling
communication such as email, file transfer, web browsing, etc.

2 (b) Define URL. Give example. (1 mark)

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address used to access a resource on the internet.

Example:
[Link]

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2 (C) Explain SNMP in detail. (5 marks)

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2(D) Explain HTTP in detail. (5 marks)

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3(a). List the status codes of HTTP client error. (1 mark)

HTTP client error status codes range from 400 to 499, such as:
✔ 400 – Bad Request
✔ 401 – Unauthorized
✔ 403 – Forbidden
✔ 404 – Not Found

3(b). Define UA & MTA. (1 mark)

UA (User Agent):
A User Agent is the software used by users to send or receive emails (e.g., Outlook, Gmail
interface).
MTA (Message Transfer Agent):
A Message Transfer Agent is software responsible for routing and delivering email messages
between mail servers (e.g., Sendmail, Postfix).
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3(C). Differentiate POP3 and IMAP. (5marks)

3(D) Describe the role of MIME in Electronic Mail. (5 marks)

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4(a). What is the function of a web browser? ( 1 mark)

A web browser retrieves, interprets, and displays web pages from the internet, allowing users to access
websites.

4(b). What is MIME? List the types of MIME. (1mark).

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a standard that defines how different types of data
(like text, images, audio, video) are formatted and transmitted over email and the web.

Types of MIME:

✔ Text
✔ Image
✔ Audio
✔ Video
✔ Application

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4(C). Describe the working of Electronic mail with SMTP and POP3. (1 mark)

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5(a) Compare client server and peer to peer architecture. (1 Mark)

 Client–Server Architecture:
Centralized — clients request services from a dedicated server.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture:
Decentralized — all nodes act as both clients and servers and share resources directly.

5(b) Write about the types of Resource Records in DNS. (1 Mark)

Common DNS Resource Record types include:

✔ A (Address Record) – maps domain to IPv4
✔ AAAA – maps domain to IPv6
✔ CNAME – alias name mapping
✔ MX – mail exchange record
✔ NS – name server record

5(C) Explain how Streaming of stored audio and video can be done? (10 Mark)

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6(a) Write the disadvantages of POP3. (1 Mark)

Disadvantages of POP3:
✔ Emails are downloaded and removed from server, making multi-device access difficult
✔ No folder synchronization or advanced mailbox management

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6(b) Write short notes on MPEG and JPEG. (1 Mark)

 MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group):

A standard used for compressing and encoding video and audio data (e.g., MP4, MPEG-2).
 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group):
A standard used for compressing still image files, widely used in digital photos.

6(c) Discuss how SMTP works? Can multimedia messages be transmitted using SMTP? (10 marks)

Refer 4c

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