Chapter two

Numbering system
Number system, operations and codes (2 lecture hour)
Decimal number
Binary conversation
 Hexadecimal number
Octal number
1’s and 2’s Binary number
Decimal to compliment of binary number
Signed number
 BCD
 Decimal Number System

• It is a system we use in everyday life.

• Also known as the Base-10 system.
• It consists of 10 distinct digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
• The value of each digit depends on its position in the number.
 Positional Weight of Decimal System
• Each position in a number represents a power of 10.
• Starting from the rightmost digit (Least Significant Digit).
• Example: The number 4537
• 4 5 3 7
• ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
• 10³ 10² 10¹ 10⁰ (Positional Weights)
• 1000 100 10 1
• (4 x 1000) + (5 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (7 x 1) = 4000 + 500 + 30 + 7 = 4537
 Why Do We Need Other Number Systems?

• Digital Electronics: Computers are built from transistors, which are

essentially switches that are either ON (1) or OFF (0).
• The Binary (Base-2) system, with only two states, is a natural fit.
• Hexadecimal and Octal systems are used as convenient "shorthand" for
representing long binary numbers for human readability.
 Binary Number System

• It is a language of computers.
• A Base-2 system.
• It consists of 2 distinct digits: 0 and 1.
• Each digit is called a bit (Binary Digit).
• A group of 8 bits is called a byte.
 Positional Weight of Binary System

• Each position in a binary number represents a power of 2.

• Example: The binary number 1101₂
• 1 1 0 1
• ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
• 2³ 2² 2¹ 2⁰ (Positional Weights)
• 8 4 2 1
• (1 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13₁₀
 Binary to Decimal Conversion

• Convert the following binary numbers to decimal:

• 1010₂
• 1111₂
• 1001 0110₂
 Continue...

• 1010₂ = (1x8)+(0x4)+(1x2)+(0x1) = 10₁₀

• 1111₂ = (1x8)+(1x4)+(1x2)+(1x1) = 15₁₀
• 1001 0110₂ = (1x128)+(0x64)+(0x32)+(1x16)+(0x8)+(1x4)+(1x2)+(0x1)
= 150₁₀
• We can see in to two ways two convert Binary to Decimal Conversion.
 Decimal to Binary Conversion: Method 1

Sum-of-Weights Method
• Find the largest power of 2 that is less than or equal to the decimal
number.
• Place a 1 in that position.
• Subtract that power from the number.
• Repeat until the remainder is 0.
• Fill all other positions with 0.
 Example: Convert 25₁₀ to Binary.

• Largest power of 2 ≤ 25 is 16 (2⁴). → Bit 4 = 1. Remainder: 25-16=9.

• Largest power of 2 ≤ 9 is 8 (2³). → Bit 3 = 1. Remainder: 9-8=1.
• Largest power of 2 ≤ 1 is 1 (2⁰). → Bit 0 = 1.
• Bits 2 and 1 are 0.
• Result: 1 1 0 0 1₂ (16 + 8 + 1 = 25)
 Decimal to Binary Conversion: Method 2

Repeated Division-by-2 Method

• Divide the decimal number by 2.
• Record the remainder (this will be the Least Significant Bit, LSB).
• Use the quotient for the next division.
• Repeat until the quotient is 0.
• The binary number is the remainders read from bottom to top.
 Example Convert 29₁₀ to Binary

• Operation | Quotient | Remainder

• 29 ÷ 2 | 14 | 1 ↑ (LSB)
• 14 ÷ 2 | 7 | 0 ↑
• 7÷2 | 3 | 1 ↑
• 3÷2 | 1 | 1 ↑
• 1 ÷ 2 | 0 | 1 ↑ (MSB)
• Reading remainders from bottom to top: 29₁₀ = 11101₂
 Continue…
• Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:
• 42₁₀
• 67₁₀
• 129₁₀
 Continue…
• Let’s take a number 42₁₀, 67₁₀ , 129₁₀
42 ÷ 2 = 21, R= 0 1 ÷ 2 = 0, R=1
21 ÷ 2 = 10 , R=1 Result: 101010₂
10 ÷ 2 = 5 , R=0 The same sequence 67₁₀ = 1000011₂

5 ÷ 2 = 2, R=1 The same sequence 129₁₀ = 10000001₂

2 ÷ 2 = 1, R=0
 Hexadecimal Number System

• A Base-16 system.
• Used as a compact, human-readable form for binary.
• Consists of 16 digits:
• 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F Where A=10, B=11, C=12,
D=13, E=14, F=15.
 Hexadecimal Positional Weight

• Each position represents a power of 16.

• Example: 2A5F₁₆
• 2 A 5 F
• ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
• 16³ 16² 16¹ 16⁰
• 4096 256 16 1
• (2 x 4096) + (10 x 256) + (5 x 16) + (15 x 1) = 10847₁₀
 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

• Group the binary number into 4-bit nibbles, starting from the right (LSB).
• Convert each 4-bit group into its corresponding hexadecimal digit.
• Example: Convert 1101 1010 0111₂ to Hex.
• 1101 = D₁₆
• 1010 = A₁₆
• 0111 = 7₁₆
• Result: DA7₁₆
 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

• Convert each hexadecimal digit into its 4-bit binary equivalent.

• Example: Convert 3E9₁₆ to Binary.
• 3 = 0011
• E = 1110
• 9 = 1001
• Result: 0011 1110 1001₂ or 1111101001₂
 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

• Repeated Division-by-16 Method

• Divide the decimal number by 16.
• Record the remainder (convert 10-15 to A-F).
• Use the quotient for the next division.
• Repeat until quotient is 0.
• The hex number is the remainders read from bottom to top.
 Example

• Convert 2549₁₀ to Hexadecimal.

• Operation | Quotient | Remainder
• 2549 ÷ 16 | 159 | 5 ↑
• 159 ÷ 16 | 9 | 15 (F) ↑
• 9 ÷ 16 | 0 | 9 ↑
• Reading remainders from bottom to top: 2549₁₀ = 9F5₁₆
 Hexadecimal Arithmetic Addition

• Add digit by digit, If the sum is 16 or more, subtract 16 and carry 1 to the
next digit.
• 1A7
• + 2 B 9 =4 6 0
• 7+9=16 → 0, carry 1.
• 1+A+B = 1+10+11=22 → 22-16=6, carry 1.
• 1+1+2=4.
 Why is Hexadecimal So Useful?

• Compactness: FF is much easier to read/write than 11111111.

• Easy Conversion: Every hex digit corresponds to exactly 4 bits.
• Memory Addresses: Widely used to represent memory addresses.
• Color Codes: Used in web design (e.g., #FF5733).
 Octal Number System

• A Base-8 system.
• Also used as a shorthand for binary, though less common than Hex today.
• Consists of 8 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
 Octal Positional Weight

• Each position represents a power of 8.

• Example: 457₈
• 4 5 7
• ↓ ↓ ↓
• 8² 8¹ 8⁰
• 64 8 1
• (4 x 64) + (5 x 8) + (7 x 1) = 256 + 40 + 7 = 303₁₀
 Binary to Octal Conversion

• Group the binary number into 3-bit groups, starting from the right (LSB).
• Convert each 3-bit group into its corresponding octal digit.
• Example: Convert 101 110 011₂ to Octal.
• 101 = 5₈
• 110 = 6₈
• 011 = 3₈
• Result: 563₈
 Octal to Binary Conversion

• Convert each octal digit into its 3-bit binary equivalent.

• Example: Convert 742₈ to Binary.
• 7 = 111
• 4 = 100
• 2 = 010
• Result: 111 100 010₂
 Binary Arithmetic Addition

Follows four basic rules:

• 0+0=0
• 0+1=1
• 1+0=1
• 1 + 1 = 0, with a carry of 1 (since 1+1=2, which is 10₂ in binary)
 Examples
• binary 1 0 1 1 in decimal (11₁₀)
• (+) binary 0 1 0 1 in decimal (5₁₀)
• Binary 1 0 0 0 0 in decimal (16₁₀)
• 1+1=0, carry 1.
• 1+0+0=1, carry 0.
• 0+1+1=0, carry 1.
• 1+0+0=1, carry 0.
 Binary Arithmetic Subtraction

• Follows four basic rules:

• 0-0=0
• 1-0=1
• 1-1=0
• 0 - 1 = 1, with a borrow of 1 from the next higher significant bit.
 Example

• Binary 1 0 1 0 in decimal (10₁₀)

• (- ) Binary 0 1 0 1 in decimal (5₁₀)
• Binary 0 1 0 1 in decimal (5₁₀)
• (Column 0) 0-1: Borrow needed. It becomes 10-1=1.
• (Column 1) After borrow, 0-0=0.
• (Column 2) 0-1: Borrow needed. It becomes 10-1=1.
• (Column 3) After borrow, 0-0=0.
 The Problem with Direct Subtraction

• Borrowing logic is complex to implement in digital hardware.

• Is there a better way?
• Yes! We can perform subtraction using addition by using complements.
• This is a fundamental concept in computer architecture.
 Complements of Binary Numbers

• Two types of complements are used:

• 1's Complement
• 2's Complement
• 2's Complement is the most important and widely used method in modern
computing for representing signed numbers and performing subtraction.
 1's Complement

• The 1's complement of a binary number is obtained by changing all 1s to

0s and all 0s to 1s.
• It is simply the bitwise NOT operation.
• Examples: Binary: 1 0 1 1 0
• 1's Comp: 01001
• Binary: 001011
• 1's Comp: 110100
 2's Complement

• The 2's complement of a binary number is obtained by:

• Step 1: Find the 1's complement (flip all the bits).
• Step 2: Add 1 to the least significant bit (LSB) of the 1's complement.
 Example 1

• Find the 2's complement of 10110₂.

• Step 1: Find 1's complement (flip the bits).
• 10110 → 01001
• Step 2: Add 1 to the LSB.
• 01001
•+1
• 01010
 Example 2

• Find the 2's complement of 10010011₂.

• 1's complement → 01101100
• Add 1 → 01101100 + 1 = 01101101
• Result: 01101101
 Find 1's and 2's Complement

• Find the 1's and 2's complement for:

• 1100 1010
• 0111 0101
 Continue…
• For a given binary number :-1100 1010
• 1's Comp: 0011 0101
• 2's Comp: 0011 0101 + 1 = 0011 0110
• For a given binary number :- 0111 0101
• 1's Comp: 1000 1010
• 2's Comp: 1000 1010 + 1 = 1000 1011
 Subtraction Using Complements

• We can perform subtraction (A - B) by adding A to the 2's complement of

B.
The general procedure:
• Find the 2's complement of the subtrahend (B).
• Add this complement to the minuend (A).
• If there is a carry beyond the MSB, discard it.
• If there is no carry, the result is negative and in its 2's complement form.
 Subtraction using 2's Complement: Case 1
(Positive Result)
• Perform 9 - 5 or (1001 - 0101) using 2's complement.
• Step 1: 2's complement of 5 (0101) is 1011.
• Step 2: Add 9 (1001) to the 2's complement of 5 (1011).
• 1 0 0 1 (9)
• + 1 0 1 1 (2's comp of 5)
• 10100
• Step 3: Discard the end carry. The remaining bits are 0100 and the Result is 0100₂ = 4₁₀
 Subtraction using 2's Complement: Case 2
(Negative Result)
• Perform 5 - 9 (0101 - 1001) using 2's complement.
• Step 1: 2's complement of 9 (1001) is 0111.
• Step 2: Add 5 (0101) to the 2's complement of 9 (0111).
• 0 1 0 1 (5)
• + 0 1 1 1 (2's comp of 9)
• 1100
 Continue…
• Step 3: There is no end carry.
• This means the result is negative. To find the magnitude, take the 2's
complement of the result.
• 2's complement of 1100 is 0100 (which is 4).
• Result: -4₁₀
 Why Does This Work? (A Mathematical
View)
• The 2's complement of an n-bit number N is defined as 2ⁿ - N.
• So, A - B can be written as:
• A - B = A + (2ⁿ - B) = 2ⁿ + (A - B)
• If A ≥ B, the result is 2ⁿ + (A-B). The 2ⁿ represents the carry, which we
discard, leaving (A-B).
• If A < B, the result is 2ⁿ - (B-A), which is exactly the 2's complement form
of (B-A).
 Signed Number Representation

• How do we represent positive and negative numbers in a computer?

Three common methods:
• Sign-Magnitude
• 1's Complement
• 2's Complement (The Modern Standard)
 Sign-Magnitude Representation
• The Left-Most Bit (MSB) is the sign bit.
• 0, for positive and 1, for negative
• The remaining bits represent the magnitude (absolute value).
Example (8-bit):
• +25 = 0001 1001 (Sign bit=0, Magnitude=25)
• -25 = 1001 1001 (Sign bit=1, Magnitude=25)
• Problem: Has two representations for zero (00000000 = +0 and 10000000 = -0).
Inefficient.
 2's Complement Representation (The
Standard)
• Positive numbers are represented as themselves.
• Negative numbers are represented by the 2's complement of their positive
counterpart.
• Example (8-bit):
• +25 = 0001 1001
• -25 = 1110 0111 (2's complement of 0001 1001)
• Key Advantage: Only one representation for zero (00000000). This simplifies logic
circuits.
 Range of Signed Numbers

• For an n-bit number using 2's complement:

• Largest Positive Number: 2^(n-1) - 1
• Smallest Negative Number: -2^(n-1)
• Examples:
• 8-bit: Range is -128 to +127.
• 16-bit: Range is -32,768 to +32,767.
 1's Complement Representation

• Positive numbers are represented as themselves.

• Negative numbers are represented by the 1's complement of their positive
counterpart.
• Example (8-bit):
• +25 = 0001 1001
• -25 = 1110 0110 (1's complement of 0001 1001)
• Problem: Also has two representations for zero (00000000 = +0 and 11111111 = -0).
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

• BCD is a way to represent each decimal digit with a 4-bit binary code.
• It is not a number system like binary or hex; it is a code.
• Rule: Each decimal digit (0-9) is represented by its 4-bit binary equivalent.
 Example
• Convert 497₁₀ to BCD, Take each decimal digit and write its 4-bit binary value.
• 4 = 0100
• 9 = 1001
• 7 = 0111
• Result: 497₁₀ = 0100 1001 0111 (BCD)
• Compare to True Binary:
• 497₁₀ = 111110001₂
• BCD is different and often less efficient in terms of bit usage.
 BCD vs. Pure Binary

Advantage of BCD
• Very easy to convert to and from decimal.
• Accurate representation and rounding for decimal numbers (important in
financial calculations).
Disadvantage of BCD
• Inefficient storage (e.g., 497 requires 12 bits in BCD, but only 9 bits in pure
binary).
• Arithmetic operations are more complex.
 BCD Addition

• Add BCD digits as normal binary numbers.

• Correction Rule: If the sum for a digit group is greater than 9 (or a carry is
generated), add 0110 (6) to that group to correct it.
 Example 1 (No Correction)

• Add 12 and 24 in BCD.

• 12 = 0001 0010
• 24 = 0010 0100
• 0001 0010 (12)
• + 0010 0100 (24)
• 0011 0110 (36)
 Continue…
• Each digit group (0011=3, 0110=6) is valid (≤9). No correction needed.
• Result: 0011 0110 (BCD) = 36₁₀
BCD Addition: Example 2 (With Correction)

• Add 28 and 39 in BCD.

• 28 = 0010 1000
• 39 = 0011 1001
• 0010 1000 (28)
• + 0011 1001 (39)
• 0110 0001 (Binary sum = 61, invalid BCD)
 Continue…

• The first digit group 0110 (6) is valid.

• The second digit group 0001 (1) is valid, but wait! The binary sum of the
lower nibble was 1000+1001=10001 (17), which generated a carry into the
upper nibble. This is the key indicator for correction.
• Add 0110 to the lower nibble: 0110 0001 + 0000 0110 = 0110 0111
• Result: 0110 0111 (BCD) = 67₁₀