Backtracking
Some problems can be solved, by exhaustive search. The exhaustive-search technique
suggests generating all candidate solutions and then identifying the one (or the ones) with a
desired property.
Backtracking is a more intelligent variation of this approach. The principal idea is to
construct solutions one component at a time and evaluate such partially constructed
candidates as follows. If a partially constructed solution can be developed further without
violating the problem’s constraints, it is done by taking the first remaining legitimate option
for the next component. If there is no legitimate option for the next component, no
alternatives for any remaining component need to be considered. In this case, the algorithm
backtracks to replace the last component of the partially constructed solution with its next
option.
It is convenient to implement this kind of processing by constructing a tree of choices being
made, called the state-space tree. Its root represents an initial state before the search for a
solution begins. The nodes of the first level in the tree represent the choices made for the first
component of a solution; the nodes of the second level represent the choices for the second
component, and soon. A node in a state-space tree is said to be promising if it corresponds to
a partially constructed solution that may still lead to a complete solution; otherwise, it is
called non-promising. Leaves represent either non-promising dead ends or complete
solutions found by the algorithm.
In the majority of cases, a state space tree for a backtracking algorithm is constructed in the
manner of depth-first search. If the current node is promising, its child is generated by adding
the first remaining legitimate option for the next component of a solution, and the processing
moves to this child. If the current node turns out to be non-promising, the algorithm
backtracks to the node’s parent to consider the next possible option for its last component; if
there is no such option, it backtracks one more level up the tree, and so on. Finally, if the
algorithm reaches a complete solution to the problem, it either stops (if just one solution is
required) or continues searching for other possible solutions.
General method
General Algorithm (Recursive)
General Algorithm (Iterative)
General Algorithm for backtracking z
N-Queens problem
The problem is to place n queens on an n × n chessboard so that no two queens attack each
other by being in the same row or in the same column or on the same diagonal.
So let us consider the four-queens problem and solve it by the
backtracking technique. Since each of the four queens has to be
placed in its own row, all we need to do is to assign a column for
each queen on the board presented in figure.
We start with the empty board and then place queen 1 in the first possible position of its row,
which is in column 1 of row 1. Then we place queen 2, after trying unsuccessfully columns 1
and 2, in the first acceptable position for it, which is square (2, 3), the square in row 2 and
column 3. This proves to be a dead end because there is no acceptable position for queen 3.
So, the algorithm backtracks and puts queen 2 in the next possible position at (2, 4). Then
queen 3 is placed at (3, 2), which proves to be another dead end. The algorithm then
backtracks all the way to queen 1 and moves it to (1, 2). Queen 2 then goes to (2, 4), queen 3
to(3, 1), and queen 4 to (4, 3), which is a solution to the problem. The state-space tree of this
search is shown in figure.
Figure: State-space tree of solving the four-queens problem by backtracking. ×
denotes an unsuccessful attempt to place a queen in the indicated column. The
numbers above the nodes indicate the order in which the nodes are generated.
If other solutions need to be found, the algorithm can simply resume its operations at the leaf
at which it stopped. Alternatively, we can use the board’s symmetry for this purpose.
Finally, it should be pointed out that a single solution to the n-queens problem for any n ≥ 4
can be found in linear time.
Sum of subsets problem
Problem definition: Find a subset of a given set A = {a1, . . . , an} of n positive integers
whose sum is equal to a given positive integer d.
For example, for A = {1, 2, 5, 6, 8} and d = 9, there are two solutions: {1, 2, 6} and {1, 8}.
Of course, some instances of this problem may have no solutions.
It is convenient to sort the set’s elements in increasing order. So, we will assume that
a1< a2< . . . < an.
The state-space tree can be constructed as a binary tree like that in Figure shown below for
the instance A = {3, 5, 6, 7} and d = 15.
The number inside a node is the sum of the elements already included in the subsets
represented by the node. The inequality below a leaf indicates the reason for its termination.
The root of the tree represents the starting point, with no decisions about the given elements
made as yet. Its left and right children represent, respectively, inclusion and exclusion of a 1 in
a set being sought.
Similarly, going to the left from a node of the first level corresponds to inclusion of a 2 while
going to the right corresponds to its exclusion, and so on. Thus, a path from the root to a node
on the ith level of the tree indicates which of the first in numbers have been included in the
subsets represented by that node.
We record the value of s, the sum of these numbers, in the node. If s is equal to d, we have a
solution to the problem. We can either report this result and stop or, if all the solutions need
to be found, continue by backtracking to the node’s parent. If s is not equal to d, we can
terminate the node as non-promising if either of the following two inequalities holds:
Example: Apply backtracking to solve the following instance of the subset sum problem: A
= {1, 3, 4, 5} and d = 11.
Graph coloring
Analysis
