Artificial

Intelligence

Unit 3: Adversarial Search & Logical Agents

Compiled by: Pallavi Tawde

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Vidyalankar School
of Information
Technology
Wadala (E),
Mumbai
[Link]
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 Unit III: Adversarial Search
& Logical Agents

Contents:
 Games, optimal decisions in games
 Alpha-beta pruning
 Stochastic games
 Partially observable games
 State-of-the-are game programs
 Knowledge base agents
 The Wumpus world
 Logic, propositional logic
 Propositional theorem proving
 Effective propositional model checking
 Agents based on propositional logic

Recommended Books
 Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach , Stuart Russel and Peter Norvig
 A First Course in Artificial Intelligence, Deepak Khemani

Prerequisites and Linking

Unit III Pre- requisites Linking

Adversarial Sem. I Sem. II Sem. III Sem. IV Sem. V Sem. VI

Search
and - - Python Core Java - Business
Logical Programming Intelligence
Agents
Game formal definition as a kind of search problem:
a) We begin with a definition of the optimal move and an algorithm for finding it.
b) Pruning allows us to ignore portions of the search tree that make no difference to the
 final choice, and heuristic evaluation functions allow us to approximate the true
utility of a state without doing a complete search.
We first consider games with two players, whom we call MAX and MIN for reasons that will
soon become obvious. MAX moves first, and then they take turns moving until the game is
over.
c) A game can be formally defined as a kind of search problem with the following elements:
 S0: The initial state, which specifies how the game is set up at the start.
 PLAYER(s): Defines which player has the move in a state
 ACTIONS(s): Returns the set of legal moves in a state.
 RESULT(s, a): The transition model, which defines the result of a move.
 TERMINAL-TEST(s): A terminal test, which is true when the game is over and false
 TERMINAL STATES otherwise. States where the game has ended are called
terminal states.
 UTILITY(s, p): A utility function (also called an objective function or payoff
function),defines the final numeric value for a game that ends in terminal state s for a
player p. Inchess, the outcome is a win, loss, or draw, with values +1, 0, or 1/2 . Some
games have a wider variety of possible outcomes; the payoffs in backgammon range
from 0 to +192.A zero-sum game is (confusingly) defined as one where the total
payoff to all players is the same for every instance of the game. Chess is zero-sum
because every game has payoff of either 0 + 1, 1 + 0 or 1/2+ 1/2 . “Constant-sum”
would have been a better term, but zero-sum is traditional and makes sense if you
imagine each player is charged an entry fee of 1/2 .

Game tree and its example:

a) The initial state, ACTIONS function, and RESULT function define the game tree for the
game- tree where the nodes are game states and the edges are moves.
b) Eg. Game tree for tic-tac-toe.
c) From the initial state, MAX has nine possible moves.
d) Play alternates between MAX’s placing an X and MIN’s placing an O until we reach leaf
nodes corresponding to terminal states such that one player has three in a row or all the
squares are filled. The number on each leaf node indicates the utility value of the terminal
state from the point of view of MAX; high values are assumed to be good for MAX and bad
for MIN (which is how the players get their names).
e) For tic-tac-toe the game tree is relatively small—fewer than 9! = 362, 880 terminalnodes. But
for chess there are over 1040 nodes, so the game tree is best thought of as a theoretical
construct that we cannot realize in the physical world.
f) But regardless of the size of the game tree, it is MAX’s job to search for a good move.
SEARCH TREE We use the term search tree for a tree that is superimposed on the full game
tree, and examines enough nodes to allow a player to determine what move to make.
OPTIMAL DECISIONS IN GAMES:
a. In a normal search problem, the optimal solution would be a sequence of actions leading to a
goal state—a terminal state that is a win.
b. In adversarial search, MIN has something to say about it. MAX therefore must find a
contingent strategy, which specifies MAX’s move in the initial state, then MAX’s moves in
the states resulting from every possible response by MIN, then MAX’s moves in the states
resulting from every possible response by MIN to those moves, and so on.
c. This is exactly analogous to the AND–OR search algorithm with MAX playing the role of
OR and MIN equivalent to AND.
d. An optimal strategy leads to outcomes at least as good as any other strategy when one is
playing an infallible opponent. We begin by showing how to find this optimal strategy.
e. The possible moves for MAX at the root node are labeled a1, a2, and a3.
f. The possible replies to a1 for MIN are b1, b2, b3, and so on.
g. This particular game ends after one move each by MAX and MIN.
h. The utilities of the terminal states in this game range from 2 to 14.
i. MAX prefers to move to a state of maximum value, whereas MIN prefers a state of minimum
value. So we have the following:
MINIMAX(s) =

UTILITY(s) if TERMINAL-TEST(s)
maxa∈Actions(s) MINIMAX(RESULT(s, a)) if PLAYER(s) = MAX
mina∈Actions(s) MINIMAX(RESULT(s, a)) if PLAYER(s) = MIN

Min max algorithm with example:

a) The minimax algorithm computes the minimax decision from the current state.
b) It uses a simple recursive computation of the minimax values of each successor state, directly
c) implementing the defining equations.
d) The recursion proceeds all the way down to the leaves of the tree, and then the minimax values
are backed up through the tree as the recursion unwinds.
e) The minimax algorithm performs a complete depth-first exploration of the game tree.
f) The minimax algorithm performs a complete depth-first exploration of the game tree.
g) If the maximum depth of the tree is m and there are b legal moves at each point, then the time
complexity of the minimax algorithm is O(bm).
h) The space complexity is O(bm) for an algorithm that generates all actions at once, or O(m) for an
algorithm that generates actions one at a time.
i) For real games, of course, the time cost is totally impractical, but this algorithm serves as the
basis for the mathematical analysis of games and for more practical algorithms.
MINMAX Algorithm:

[Link]

Alpha beta pruning algorithm with example:

a. The problem with minimax search is that the number of game states it has to examine is
exponential in the depth of the tree.
b. we can’t eliminate the exponent, but it turns out we can effectively cut it in half. The trick is
that it is possible to compute the correct minimax decision without looking at every node in
the game tree.
c. The particular technique we examine is called alpha beta pruning. When applied to a
standard minimax tree, it returns the same move as minimax would, but prunes away
branches that cannot possibly influence the final decision.
d. Another way to look at this is as a simplification of the formula for MINIMAX. Let the
two unevaluated successors of node C in Figure 5.5 have values x and y. Then the value of the
root node is given by
e. MINIMAX(root ) = max(min(3, 12, 8), min(2, x, y), min(14, 5, 2))
= max(3, min(2, x, y), 2)
= max(3, z, 2) where z = min(2, x, y) ≤ 2
= 3.

f. In other words, the value of the root and hence the minimax decision are independent of the
values of the pruned leaves x and y.
g. Alpha–beta pruning can be applied to trees of any depth, and it is often possible to
prune entire subtrees rather than just leaves. The general principle is this: consider a node n
somewhere in the tree ,such that Player has a choice of moving to that node.
h. Remember that minimax search is depth-first, so at any one time we just have to consider the
nodes along a single path in the tree. Alpha–beta pruning gets its name from the following
two parameters that describe bounds on the backed-up values that appear anywhere along the
path:
 α = the value of the best (i.e., highest-value) choice we have found so far at any
choice point along the path for MAX.
β = the value of the best (i.e., lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any
choice point along the path for MIN.
i. Alpha–beta search updates the values of α and β as it goes along and prunes the remaining
branches at a node (i.e., terminates the recursive call) as soon as the value of the current node
is known to be worse than the current α or β value for MAX or MIN, respectively.

Step by Step: Alpha Beta Pruning

[Link]

Evaluation functions, Cutting off search.

Evaluation Function:
a) An evaluation function returns an estimate of the expected utility of the game from a given
Position.
b) For centuries, chess players have developed ways of judging the value of a position because
humans are even more limited in the amount of search they can do than are computer programs.
c) It should be clear that the performance of a game-playing program depends strongly on the
quality of its evaluation function.
d) An inaccurate evaluation function will guide an agent toward positions that turn out to be lost.
 e) The evaluation function should order the terminal states in the same way as the true utility
function: states that are wins must evaluate better than draws, which in turn must be better than
losses.
f) Otherwise, an agent using the evaluation function might err even if it can see ahead all the way to
the end of the game.
g) The computation must not take too long!
h) For nonterminal states, the evaluation function should be strongly correlated with the actual
chances of winning.
i) Evaluation functions work by calculating various features of the state—for example, in chess,
we would have features for the number of white pawns, black pawns, white queens, black
queens, and so on.
j) The features, taken together, define various categories or equivalence classes of states: the states
in each category have the same values for all the features.
k) Then a reasonable evaluation for states in the category is the expected value:

Cutting off Search:

a) The most straightforward approach to controlling the amount of search is to set a fixed depth limit so
that CUTOFF-TEST(state, depth) returns true for all depth greater than some fixed depth d. The
depth d is chosen so that a move is selected within the allocated time.
b) The evaluation function should be applied only to positions that are quiescent— that is, unlikely to
exhibit wild swings in value in the near future.
c) This extra search is called a quiescence search; sometimes it is restricted to consider only certain
types of moves, such as capture moves, that will quickly resolve the uncertainties in the position.
d) The horizon effect is more difficult to eliminate. It arises when the program is facing an opponent’s
move that causes serious damage and is ultimately unavoidable, but can be temporarily avoided by
delaying tactics. One strategy to mitigate the horizon effect is the singular extension, a move that is
“clearly better” than all other moves in a given position.

Forward pruning, Search versus lookup:

Forward Pruning
a) It is also possible to do forward pruning, meaning that some moves at a given node are pruned
immediately without further consideration. Clearly, most humans playing chess consider only a few
moves from each position.
b) One approach to forward pruning is beam search: on each ply, consider only a “beam” of the n best
moves (according to the evaluation function) rather than considering all possible moves.
c) The PROBCUT, or probabilistic cut, algorithm (Buro, 1995) is a forward-pruning version
of alpha–beta search that uses statistics gained from prior experience to lessen the chance
that the best move will be pruned. Alpha–beta search prunes any node that is provably outside the
current (α, β) window.
d) PROBCUT also prunes nodes that are probably outside the window. It computes this probability by
doing a shallow search to compute the backed-up value v of a node and then using past experience to
estimate how likely it is that a score of v at depth d in the tree would be outside (α, β).
Search versus lookup
a) The computer is mostly relying on the expertise of humans. The best advice of human experts on
how to play each opening is copied from books and entered into tables for the computer’s use.
However, computers can also gather statistics from a database of previously played games to see
which opening sequences most often lead to a win. In the early moves there are few choices, and thus
much expert commentary and past games on which to draw. Usually after ten moves we end up in a
rarely seen position, and the program must switch from table lookup to search
b) Near the end of the game there are again fewer possible positions, and thus more chance to do
lookup. But here it is the computer that has the expertise: computer analysis of endgames goes far
beyond anything achieved by humans. A human can tell you the general strategy for playing a king-
and-rook-versus-king (KRK) endgame: reduce the opposing king’s mobility by squeezing it toward
one edge of the board, using your king to prevent the opponent from escaping the squeeze
c) A computer, on the other hand, can completely POLICY solve the endgame by producing a policy,
which is a mapping from every possible state to the best move in that state.
 d) Then we can just look up the best move rather than recompute it anew. How big will the KBNK
lookup table be? It turns out there are 462 ways that two kings can be placed on the board without
being adjacent.
e) After the kings are placed, there are 62 empty squares for the bishop, 61 for the knight, and two
possible players to move next, so there are just 462 × 62 × 61 × 2 = 3, 494, 568 possible positions.
Some of these are checkmates; mark them as such in a table. Then do a retrograde minimax search:
reverse the rules of chess to do unmoves rather than moves.

STOCHASTIC GAMES:
a) Many games mirror this unpredictability by including a random element, such as the throwing of
b) dice. We call these stochastic games. Backgammon is a typical game that combines luck and
skill. Dice are rolled at the beginning of a player’s turn to determine the legal moves.

c) Although White knows what his or her own legal moves are, White does not know what Black is
going to roll and thus does not know what Black’s legal moves will be. That means White cannot
construct a standard game tree of the sort we saw in chess and tic-tac-toe. A game tree in
backgammon must include chance nodes in addition to MAX and MIN nodes.

d) In order to maximize the points or the average score, expectimax search algorithm can be used.
e) In this we have “Max Node” as well as we have in the minimax search and “Chance nodes” like
min nodes, except the outcome is uncertain. We can calculate expected utilities.
f) A stochastic game can be considered as an extension of a markov decision process as there are
multiple agents with possibly conflicting goals, and the joint actions of agents determine state
transitions and rewards.
 Different PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE GAMES:
a) Chess has often been described as war in miniature, but it lacks at least one major characteristic
of real wars, namely, partial observability. In the “fog of war,” the existence and disposition of
enemy units is often unknown until revealed by direct contact. As a result, warfare includes the
use of scouts and spies to gather information and the use of concealment and bluff to confuse the
enemy.
i. Kriegspiel: Partially observable chess
b) In deterministic partially observable games, uncertainty about the state of the board arises
entirely from lack of access to the choices made by the opponent. This class includes children’s
games such as Battleships (where each player’s ships are placed in locations hidden from the
opponent but do not move) and Stratego (where piece locations are known but piece types are
hidden).
c) We will examine the game of Kriegspiel, a partially observable variant of chess in which pieces
can move but are completely invisible to the opponent.
d) The rules of Kriegspiel are as follows: White and Black each see a board containing only their
own pieces. A referee, who can see all the pieces, adjudicates the game and periodically makes
announcements that are heard by both players.
e) White proposes to the referee any move that would be legal if there were no black pieces. If the
move is in fact not legal (because of the black pieces), the referee announces “illegal.” In this
case, White may keep proposing moves until a legal one is found—and learns more about the
location of Black’s pieces in the process. Kriegspiel may seem terrifyingly impossible, but
humans manage it quite well and computer programs are beginning to catch up.
f) We can map Kriegspiel state estimation directly onto the partially observable, nondeterministic
framework of Section 4.4 if we consider the opponent as the source of nondeterminism; that is,
the RESULTS of White’s move are composed from the (predictable) outcome of White’s own
move and the unpredictable outcome given by Black’s reply

Card Games
g) Card games provide many examples of stochastic partial observability, where the missing
h) information is generated randomly. For example, in many games, cards are dealt randomly at the
beginning of the game, with each player receiving a hand that is not visible to the other players.
Such games include bridge, whist, hearts, and some forms of poker.
i) At first sight, it might seem that these card games are just like dice games: the cards are
j) dealt randomly and determine the moves available to each player, but all the “dice” are rolled at
the beginning! Even though this analogy turns out to be incorrect, it suggests an effective
algorithm: consider all possible deals of the invisible cards; solve each one as if it were a fully
observable game; and then choose the move that has the best outcome averaged over all the
deals. Suppose that each deal s occurs with probability P(s); then the move we want is

k) we run exact MINIMAX if computationally feasible; otherwise, we run H-MINIMAX.

l) Now, in most card games, the number of possible deals is rather large.
m) For games like whist and hearts, where there is no bidding or betting phase before play
commences, each deal will be equally likely and so the values of P(s) are all equal. For
bridge, play is preceded by a bidding phase in which each team indicates how many tricks it expects
to win. Since players bid based on the cards they hold, the other players learn more about the
probability of each deal.

short note on Checkers, Othello, Backgammon, Go:

Checkers
a) Jonathan Schaeffer and colleagues developed CHINOOK, which runs on regular PCs and uses
alpha–beta search.
b) Chinook defeated the long-running human champion in an
c) abbreviated match in 1990, and since 2007 CHINOOK has been able to play perfectly by using
d) alpha–beta search combined with a database of 39 trillion endgame positions.
 Othello
e) Othello also called Reversi, is probably more popular as a computer game than as a board game.
f) It has a smaller search space than chess, usually 5 to 15 legal moves, but evaluation expertise had
to be developed from scratch. In 1997, the LOGISTELLO program (Buro, 2002) defeated the
human world champion, TakeshiMurakami, by six games to none. It is generally acknowledged
that humans are no match for computers at Othello.

Backgammon
g) Most work on backgammon has gone into improving the evaluation function. Gerry Tesauro
(1992) combined reinforcement learning with neural networks to develop a remarkably accurate
evaluator that is used with a search to depth 2 or 3.
h) After playing more than a million training games against itself, Tesauro’s program, TD-
GAMMON, is competitive with top human players. The program’s opinions on the opening
moves of the game have in some cases radically altered the received wisdom.

Go
i) Most popular board game in Asia.
j) Programs are such that human champions are beginning to the challenge by machines, though the
best humans still beat the best machines on the full board.

KNOWLEDGE-BASED AGENTS:
a) The central component of a knowledge-based agent is its knowledge base, or KB. A knowledge base
is a set of sentences.
b) Each sentence is expressed in a language called a knowledge representation language and
represents some assertion about the world. Sometimes we dignify a sentence with the name axiom,
when the sentence is taken as given without being derived from other sentences.
c) Because of the definitions of TELL and ASK, however, the knowledge-based agent is not an
arbitrary program for calculating actions. It is amenable to a description at the knowledge level,
where we need specify only what the agent knows and what its goals are, in order to fix its behavior.
d) Then we can expect it to cross the Golden Gate Bridge because it knows that that will achieve its
goal. Notice that this analysis is independent of how the taxi works at the implementation level. It
doesn’t matter whether its geographical knowledge is implemented as linked lists or pixel maps, or
whether it reasons by manipulating strings of symbols stored in registers or by propagating noisy
signals in a network of neurons.
e) A knowledge-based agent can be built simply by TELLing it what it needs to know. Starting with an
empty knowledge base, the agent designer can TELL sentences one by one until the agent knows
how to operate in its environment. This is called the declarative approach to system building. In
contrast, the procedural approach encodes desired behaviors directly as program code.
f) We now understand that a successful agent often combines both declarative and procedural elements
in its design, and that declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient procedural
code.

Define task environment for wumpus world problem:

a) The wumpus world is a cave consisting of rooms connected by passageways. Lurking somewhere in
the cave is the terrible wumpus, a beast that eats anyone who enters its room.
b) The wumpus can be shot by an agent, but the agent has only one arrow. Some rooms contain
bottomless pits that will trap anyone who wanders into these rooms
c) The only mitigating feature of this bleak environment is the possibility of finding a heap of gold.
Although the wumpus world is rather tame by modern computer game standards, it illustrates some
important points about intelligence.
d) The precise definition of the task environment is given, , by the PEAS description:
Performance measure:
 e) +1000 for climbing out of the cave with the gold, –1000 for falling into a pit or being eaten by the
wumpus, –1 for each action taken and –10 for using up the arrow. The game ends either when the
agent dies or when the agent climbs out of the cave.
Environment:
f) A 4×4 grid of rooms. The agent always starts in the square labelled [1,1], facing to the right. The
locations of the gold and the wumpus are chosen randomly, with a uniform distribution, from the
squares other than the start square. In addition, each square other than the start can be a pit, with
probability 0.2.
Actuators:
g) The agent can move Forward, TurnLeft by 90◦, or TurnRight by 90◦. The agent dies a miserable
death if it enters a square containing a pit or a live wumpus. (It is safe, albeit smelly, to enter a square
with a dead wumpus.)
h) If an agent tries to move forward and bumps into a wall, then the agent does not move. The action
Grab can be used to pick up the gold if it is in the same square as the agent.
i) The action Shoot can be used to fire an arrow in a straight line in the direction the agent is facing.
The arrow continues until it either hits (and hence kills) the wumpus or hits a wall.
j) The agent has only one arrow, so only the first Shoot action has any effect. Finally, the action Climb
can be used to climb out of the cave, but only from square [1,1].
Sensors:
The agent has five sensors, each of which gives a single bit of information:
 In the square containing the wumpus and in the directly (not diagonally) adjacent
squares, the agent will perceive a Stench.
 In the squares directly adjacent to a pit, the agent will perceive a Breeze.
 In the square where the gold is, the agent will perceive a Glitter.
 When an agent walks into a wall, it will perceive a Bump.
 When the wumpus is killed, it emits a woeful Scream that can be perceived anywhere in the cave.
The percepts will be given to the agent program in the form of a list of five symbols;
for example, if there is a stench and a breeze, but no glitter, bump, or scream, the agent
program will get [Stench, Breeze, None, None, None].

Connectives of propositional logic:

a) We now present a simple but powerful logic called propositional logic.
b) Then we look at entailment—the relation between a sentence and another sentence that follows
from it—and see how this leads to a simple algorithm for logical inference.
c) The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences. The atomic sentences consist
of a single proposition symbol.
d) Each such symbol stands for a proposition that can be true or false.
e) There are two proposition symbols with fixed meanings: True is the always-true proposition and
False is the always-false proposition.
f) Complex sentences are constructed from simpler sentences, using parentheses and logical
connectives. There are five connectives in common use:
 ￢ (not). A sentence such as ￢W1,3 is called the negation of W1,3. A literal is either an atomic
sentence (a positive literal) or a negated atomic sentence (a negative literal).
 ∧ (and). A sentence whose main connective is ∧, such as W1,3 ∧ P3,1, is called a conjunction; its
parts are the conjuncts. (The ∧ looks like an “A” for “And.”).
 ∨ (or). A sentence using ∨, such as (W1,3∧P3,1)∨W2,2, is a disjunction of the disjuncts (W1,3 ∧
P3,1) and W2,2. (Historically, the ∨ comes from the Latin “vel,” which means “or.” For most people,
it is easier to remember ∨ as an upside-down ∧.)
 ⇒ (implies). A sentence such as (W1,3∧P3,1) ⇒ ￢W2,2 is called an implication (or conditional).
Its premise or antecedent is (W1,3 ∧P3,1), and its conclusion or consequent is ￢W2,2.
Implications are also known as rules or if–then statements. The implication RULES symbol is
sometimes written in other books as ⊃ or →.
 ⇔ (if and only if). The sentence W1,3 ⇔ ￢W2,2 is a biconditional. Some other books
write this as ≡.
 Propositional Logic:

[Link]

A BNF (Backus–Naur Form) grammar of sentences in propositional logic, along with operator
precedence:
a) The BNF grammar by itself is ambiguous; a sentence with several operators can be parsed by the
grammar in multiple ways.
b) To eliminate the ambiguity we define a precedence for each operator. The “not” operator (￢) has
the highest precedence, which means that in the sentence ￢A ∧ B the ￢ binds most tightly,
giving us the equivalent of (￢A)∧B rather than ￢(A∧B).
c) When in doubt, use parentheses to make sure of the right interpretation. Square brackets mean
the same thing as parentheses; the choice of square brackets or parentheses is solely to make it
easier for a human to read a sentence.
Standard logical equivalence in PL:

Inference rules with examples:

a. This section covers inference rules that can be applied to derive a proof—a chain of
conclusions that leads to the desired goal. The best-known rule is called Modus Ponens
(Latin for mode that affirms) and is written α ⇒ β, αβ.
b. The notation means that, whenever any sentences of the form α ⇒ β and α are given, then
c. the sentence β can be inferred. For example, if (WumpusAhead ∧WumpusAlive) ⇒ Shoot
and (WumpusAhead ∧ WumpusAlive) are given, then Shoot can be inferred. Another useful
inference rule is And-Elimination, which says that, from a conjunction,any of the conjuncts
can be inferred:α ∧ β α.
d. Not all inference rules work in both directions like this. For example, we cannot run Modus
Ponens in the opposite direction to obtain α ⇒ β and α from β.
e. Let us see how these inference rules and equivalences can be used in the wumpus world.
f. We start with the knowledge base containing R1 through R5 and show how to prove ￢P1,2,
that is, there is no pit in [1,2]. First, we apply biconditional elimination to R2 to obtain R6:
(B1,1 ⇒ (P1,2 ∨ P2,1)) ∧ ((P1,2 ∨ P2,1) ⇒ B1,1) .
g. Then we apply And-Elimination to R6 to obtain
R7: ((P1,2 ∨ P2,1) ⇒ B1,1) .
Logical equivalence for contrapositives gives
R8: (￢B1,1 ⇒ ￢(P1,2 ∨ P2,1)) .
Now we can apply Modus Ponens with R8 and the percept R4 (i.e., ￢B1,1), to obtain
R9 : ￢(P1,2 ∨ P2,1) .
Finally, we apply De Morgan’s rule, giving the conclusion
R10 : ￢P1,2 ∧ ￢P2,1 .
That is, neither [1,2] nor [2,1] contains a pit.
 INITIAL STATE: the initial knowledge base.
 ACTIONS: the set of actions consists of all the inference rules applied to all the
sentences
 that match the top half of the inference rule.
 RESULT: the result of an action is to add the sentence in the bottom half of the
inference
 rule.
 GOAL: the goal is a state that contains the sentence we are trying to prove.

Forward chaining:
a) The forward-chaining algorithm PL-FC-ENTAILS?(KB, q) determines if a single proposition
symbol q—the query—is entailed by a knowledge base of definite clauses. It begins from known
facts (positive literals) in the knowledge base. If all the premises of an implication are known,
then its conclusion is added to the set of known facts.
 b) This process continues until the query q is added or until no further inferences can
be made.
c) Algorithm

Backtracking algorithm:

The term backtracking search is used for a depth-first search that chooses values for one variable at a time
and backtracks when a variable has no legal values left to assign.
If an inconsistency is detected, then BACKTRACK returns failure, causing the previous call to try another
value.
Notice that BACKTRACKING-SEARCH keeps only a single representation of a state and
alters that representation rather than creating new ones.

The tricks that enable SAT solvers to scale up to large problems:

a) The tricks that enable SAT solvers to scale up to large problems. It is interesting that most of
these tricks are in fact rather general, and we have seen them before in other guises:
b) Component analysis : As DPLL assigns truth values to variables, the set of clauses may become
separated into disjoint subsets, called components, that share no unassigned variables. Given an
efficient way to detect when this occurs, a solver can gain considerable speed by working on each
component separately.
c) Variable and value ordering: Our simple implementation of DPLL uses an arbitrary variable
ordering and always tries the value true before false. The degree heuristic suggests choosing the
variable that appears most frequently over all remaining clauses.
d) Intelligent backtracking : Many problems that cannot be solved in hours of run time with
chronological backtracking can be solved in seconds with intelligent backtracking that backs up
all the way to the relevant point of conflict. All SAT solvers that do intelligent backtracking use
 some form of conflict clause learning to record conflicts so that they won’t be repeated later in
the search.
e) Random restarts : Sometimes a run appears not to be making progress. In this case, we can start
over from the top of the search tree, rather than trying to continue. After restarting, different
random choices (in variable and value selection) are made.
f) Clever indexing (as seen in many algorithms): The speedup methods used in DPLL itself, as
well as the tricks used in modern solvers, require fast indexing of such things as “the set of
clauses in which variable Xi appears as a positive literal.” This task is complicated by the fact
that the algorithms are interested only in the clauses that have not yet been satisfied by previous
assignments to variables, so the indexing structures must be updated dynamically as the
computation proceeds.

Concept of knowledge base with example:

a) The central component of a knowledge-based agent is its knowledge base, or KB. A knowledge base
is a set of sentences.
b) Each sentence is expressed in a language called a knowledge representation language and
represents some assertion about the world. Sometimes we dignify a sentence with the name axiom,
when the sentence is taken as given without being derived from other sentences.
c) Because of the definitions of TELL and ASK, however, the knowledge-based agent is not an
arbitrary program for calculating actions. It is amenable to a description at the knowledge level,
where we need specify only what the agent knows and what its goals are, in order to fix its behavior.
d) Then we can expect it to cross the Golden Gate Bridge because it knows that that will achieve its
goal. Notice that this analysis is independent of how the taxi works at the implementation level. It
doesn’t matter whether its geographical knowledge is implemented as linked lists or pixel maps, or
whether it reasons by manipulating strings of symbols stored in registers or by propagating noisy
signals in a network of neurons.
e) A knowledge-based agent can be built simply by TELLing it what it needs to know. Starting with an
empty knowledge base, the agent designer can TELL sentences one by one until the agent knows
how to operate in its environment. This is called the declarative approach to system building. In
contrast, the procedural approach encodes desired behaviors directly as program code.
f) We now understand that a successful agent often combines both declarative and procedural elements
in its design, and that declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient procedural
code.

Resolution theorem:

Resolution is a rule of inference leading to a refutation theorem-proving technique for sentences in

propositional logic and first-order logic. In other words, iteratively applying the resolution rule in a suitable
way allows for telling whether a propositional formula is satisfiable and for proving that a first-order
formula is unsatisfiable.
GQs

1. Define game formally with important elements.

2. Explain how importance of optimal decisions in games in brief.
3. Explain following w.r.t. optimal decision in games. 1. Ply 2. Minimax
4. State and explain Minimax algorithm.
5. State and explain alpha beta pruning algorithm and Monte Carlo simulation w.r.t. it.
6. What is meant by strategy? Explain stochastic strategy and pure strategy.
7. Explain contribution of A.I. in algorithm of stochastic game.
8. Explain state of the art game programs with various games.
9. Write a short note on knowledge-based agent.
10. Explain wumpus world game with diagram and agent program of it.
11. Write a short note on promotional logic.
12. Explain Backus-Naur Form grammar of sentences along with operator precedence.
13. Explain semantics and atomic sentences w.r.t. A.I.
14. Explain how Propositional Logic is used to solve wumpus world problem.
15. Write a short note on standard logical equivalences for arbitrary sentences of propositional logic.
16. Explain Propositional Theorem Proving for WUMPUS World.
17. What is meant by monotonicity? Explain it w.r.t. propositional theorem.
18. What is meant by conjunctive normal form? Explain.
19. Write resolution algorithm and ground resolution algorithm for propositional logic.
20. Explain the difference between horn and definite clauses.
21. Explain Forward-chaining And Backward chaining in brief.
22. Write a short note on Backtracking Algorithm / DPLL algorithm.
23. What is meant by Satisfiability Problem? Explain tricks used for SAT solver.
24. Explain WALKSAT algorithm in detail.
25. Explain Landscape of Random SAT Problems.
26. What is meant by Satisfiability Threshold Conjecture? Explain with diagram.
27. Explain role of agent and agent’s percept for the solution of Wumpus world problem.
28. Explain following Terms w.r.t. The Agent’s Percept. 1. A temporal Variables 2. Locality 3.
Inferential Frame Problem 4. Qualification Problem
29. What is meant by hybrid agent? Explain.
30. Explain Logical State Estimation in detail.
31. Write Hybrid Wumpus Agent algorithm with percept.
32. Explain how to make plans by logical inference to solve problem.
33. State and explain SATPlan Algorithm Translated In CNF.
34. Explain in brief about resolution theorem.
35. Write a note on Kriegspiel’s Partially observable chess.
36. List and explain the elements used to define the game formally.