THE POTENTIALITY OF ENGINEERED

TIMBER IN STRUCTURAL BUILDING

DESIGN

Dream Beam Team, Group 12

Lorenzo Stacey (2196134)
Diana Khutova (2179900)
Lina El Shahid (2187360)
Ammar AlZein (2168596)
ABSTRACT
Wood, one of the world's oldest construction materials, has continuously been innovated throughout history. Historically, timber was
used primarily for low-rise structures due to its limitations in strength and durability, however, technological advancements in the
construction sector have dramatically expanded the applications of wood for larger buildings.
The current critical state of the environment is at the forefront of concern in society, particularly the construction sector, which
accounts for almost 40% of the carbon dioxide produced (Kamyab et al., 2020). Furthermore, it is unsurprising that a gradual
‘paradigm shift’ away from traditional construction materials, concrete and steel; in pursuit of more sustainable alternatives, is taking
place. In light of the ‘Paris Agreement’ targets to decarbonise the sector by 2050, the resurgence of wood, namely engineered
timber, has grown rapidly. Engineered timber has significant environmental advantages due to its renewability, carbon sequestering
potential and innovative load-bearing structural performance.
The use of engineered timber as a structural member endorses the use of prefabrication, construction efficiency, strength, stability,
design versatility, and seismic performance, thanks to advanced manufacturing processes which have expanded the usability of
‘wood’ to an unprecedented scale (Florian, 2023).

KEY WORDS
Technological advancements, Engineered timber, Carbon sequestering, Structural performance, Advanced manufacturing
processes.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. A traditional view on Timber with a cultural perspective from Syria

3. The innovations of Engineered Timber; characteristics, types, applications, processes and

treatments

4. The role of metal connections between structural elements (The Post-tensioning process)

5. A contemporary view on Timber, Engineered Timber from the UK

6. Conclusion
1. Introduction
The return to traditional and environmentally friendly timber-based construction has been widely successful in many countries in
recent years, and is becoming frequently used, not only for the residential sector, as it once was, moreover, larger non-residential
constructions (Švajlenka, Pošiváková, 2023, p.4). Many cases in both Europe and North America have already demonstrated the
immense potential of timber structures; a renaissance of wood in a newfound context of structural ingenuity. The emergence of
advanced manufacturing processes such as structural adhesives, lamination techniques, hybrid connection systems, treatments,
and post-tensioning techniques have given new life to wood with a sustainable agenda.
Traditionally, in ancient culture, timber played a crucial role in daily life and architecture, especially in the construction of homes,
palaces, and temples. The use of wood, often sourced from local forests, was integral to creating durable structures and furnishings,
as well as for crafting intricate religious and artistic objects. Timber was also symbolic in Arabic culture, representing strength and
stability.

The proposal of this paper is to investigate the promising capacity of engineered timber in the modern construction sector. We will
be taking a unique cross-cultural perspective to understand the evolutionary significance of wood as a re-emerged structural building
material. In this way, engineered timber has the potential to provide a holistic and sustainable approach to structural design.

The research will be organised as follows:

● Firstly, this paper will highlight the traditional uses of timber as a structural member, considering traditional connections,
techniques and applications with a cultural perspective from Syria.
● Secondly, this paper will discuss the main structural innovations of engineered timber products and its characteristics,
specifically, glued-laminated timber (glulam), cross laminated timber (CLT), and laminated veneer lumber (LVL), giving
insight into their applications, benefits, treatments and processes in contemporary construction.
● Thirdly, the use of metal connections with engineered timber will be discussed and analysed for its crucial role in ensuring
essential mechanical properties; stiffness, stability, ductility, in addition to maintaining continuous load paths throughout
the structure.
● Finally, to understand the relevance and innovation of engineered timber in the modern age, a recent case study will be
analysed from the UK. This with the goal to appreciate its development as a construction material and plausible solution
as a more sustainable and structurally efficient alternative to traditional methods.

Collectively, this research will address the transition from ‘tradition’ to ‘modernity’, through the innovation of engineered timber, at a
time in modern society when sustainability is at the forefront of concern, contributing to a re-found purpose of one of the oldest
construction materials, wood.

2. A traditional view on Timber with a cultural perspective from Syria

Timber in its most natural source is derived from wood, a renewable material used frequently for the main structural elements in
numerous structures throughout Syria. It has been used since ancient civilizations due to its availability, ease of use, and
versatility.

Some of the advantages include:

● Flexibility and Seismic Resistance: Timber’s ability to flex under stress made it invaluable in earthquake-prone regions.
● Thermal Insulation: Timber provided natural insulation, keeping interiors cool in the summer and warm in the winter.
● Sustainability: Timber is a renewable resource, especially in areas with access to forests like the Orontes Valley.

Timber was primarily used for:

● Roofs: Wooden beams spanned walls in traditional mud brick or stone homes, supporting thatched or clay-covered roofs.
● Flooring: Timber was used to create suspended floors.
● Reinforcement: Embedded wooden beams reinforced mud brick walls, preventing cracks and offering flexibility during
earthquakes.

Fig. 1. Traditional construction techniques for timber throughout Syria.

Some examples of traditional applications include the ‘Tied wall’ and ‘Floor and Ceiling beams’.

Fig. 2. Traditional applications of timber for structures in Syria.

Tied wall
The term ‘tied wall’ in ancient architecture refers to a construction technique designed to strengthen and stabilize walls, particularly
in buildings made from relatively weak materials such as mud brick or clay. This method involves incorporating additional materials
or structural elements, such as wood or small stones, into the walls to provide extra horizontal and vertical support. It was widely
used in various ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia and Syria.
● Horizontal Reinforcement: Horizontal wooden beams are inserted within mud brick or stone walls to provide extra
resistance against collapse or cracking. These beams act as ‘ties’, distributing the pressure evenly across the wall.
● Earthquake Resistance: Tied walls exhibit relative flexibility, which makes them more resistant to seismic activity
compared to completely solid walls. Additionally, small stones or tightly compacted clay mixed with fibers (e.g., straw) may
also be added to enhance the wall's strength.

Floor and Ceiling beams

In traditional architecture, wooden beams (known as joists) played a crucial role in the structural integrity of roofs and floors. Their
distribution was carefully planned to ensure stability and functionality, depending on the type, size, and purpose of the building.

Distribution of Wooden Beams in Floors

Elevated Floors:
● Wooden beams were used to create raised floors, especially in damp or humid areas, allowing for airflow beneath the
structure and reducing moisture damage.
● These beams rested on small stone or brick supports.
Covering Layers:
● Beams were topped with wooden planks or tightly packed clay slabs to form the walking surface.
● Often, these surfaces were finished with tiles or carpets for added durability and comfort.

Distribution of Wooden Beams in Ceilings

Primary Load-Bearing Beams:
● Wooden beams were laid horizontally across load-bearing walls to provide the main structural support for the roof.
● They were evenly spaced to distribute the roof’s weight uniformly and prevent sagging.
Top Layer Support:
● The primary beams were often overlaid with smaller wooden planks, reeds, or matting to create a flat surface.
● This layer was typically covered with a mix of clay or tiles to protect against weather conditions.

3. The innovations of Engineered Timber; characteristics, types, applications, processes and

treatments.
In opposition to conventional construction methods, concrete and steel, engineered timber possesses numerous advantages,
including renewability, low energy consumption, high thermal performance, lightweight structural properties, aesthetic
appeal, ease of assembly, seismic resistance, versatility and durability.
To better understand the innovative potential of engineered timber, this report refers to data conducted through a questionnaire
sample focused on the opinions of construction professionals in Central Europe (Švajlenka, Pošiváková, 2023, p.4).
Figure 3 presents the importance of the basic characteristics for wood construction from the viewpoint of construction professionals.
The chart tells us that construction time is considered to be the most significant parameter, followed by thermal and technical
properties, and price. The environmental footprint and energy balance during the use of wood constructions are considered to be
equally significant, followed by lifetime. Acoustic properties, and fire resistance are viewed as the least important, highlighting its
disadvantages.

Fig. 3. Research on the importance of the basic parameters of wood

constructions from the respondents’ point of view.

Advantages:
Renewability: Timber is an environmentally friendly construction material that, compared to concrete and steel, demonstrates low
environmental impacts across various aspects of the construction process; both embodied and operational carbon levels (Figure 4).
It consumes only 45% of the energy of concrete buildings and 66% of the energy of steel buildings (Qilin, 2023, p. 87). Equally,
timber exhibits far lower carbon emissions, lower water pollution and can be reused at the end of its life-span as it is biodegradable.

Fig. 4. Comparison of the carbon footprint impact

between mass timber with concrete and steel.

Thermal insulation: Timber presents excellent thermal properties. Due to the inherent structural characteristics of wood, the
structure slows down the rate of heat conduction. Equally, lightweight timber structures provide ample space for insulation panels
due to their structural framework.
Seismic resistance: Due to their relatively light mass, timber structures benefit from high seismic performance. Their lightweight
structure means that they experience lower seismic forces. Likewise, with well-distributed connections, they exhibit high lateral
stiffness to seismic effects.
Flexibility: The malleability of wood permits a high degree of versatility and prefabrication. They can be transported and installed
more conveniently, enhancing the feasibility of assembly-based construction and greatly reducing the construction timeframe and
cost of the project.
Durability: Timber presents high tensile strength. It can be treated to withstand harsh weather conditions, pest infestations and
fungal susceptibility.

Disadvantages:
Mechanical performance: The anisotropic property of wood is closely related to the nature of applied forces, direction and wood
grain orientation. Differences in strength between tension and compression along the grain impact its performance. Although, simple
and direct load bearing connections can help minimise stress concentration.
Proneness to termites and beetles: Wood is prone to insect damage when its moisture content is high. Heat and chemical
treatments can be used to reduce this effect.
Fire resistance: Although relatively flammable, larger structural elements are less prone to combustion. The charring layer on the
wood surface delays the speed of combustion, providing some protection to the interior wood.
Types and applications:

Fig. 5. Glulam (left), CLT (middle), LVL (right)

Glued-laminated timber (glulam)

● Glulam is a structural member made by glueing together under hydraulic pressure, a number of graded timber laminations
with their grain parallel to the longitudinal axis of the section. Due to its versatile properties, they can be straight or curved,
and horizontally or vertically laminated for a variety of structural forms. It offers the architect a high degree of innovative
freedom without the compromise of structural performance.
Applications:
● Glulam is often used for load bearing structures including beams, arches and columns.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT)

● Composed of a minimum of three structural grade softwood boards stacked and glued perpendicular to one another which
results in high structural strength across two dimensions. It offers high strength and structural simplicity needed for
cost-efficient projects.
Applications:
● CLT has numerous applications, well suited to multi-storey construction. Typically used for horizontal elements such as
floor panels and for roofs, they are becoming more common for vertical elements such as load-bearing walls and shear
walls.

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

● Unlike glulam and CLT, LVL is constructed with wood veneer. It is a composite board made from various thin layers of
veneers that are combined with the grain running in the same direction and bonded together with moisture resistance
adhesive. Other products of this category include laminated strand lumber (LSL) and parallel strand lumber (PSL).
Applications:
● Generally used as load-carrying beams such as lintels and headers, and when cross-bonded for increased stiffness, it can
be used to form walls and floor panels with load-bearing capacity.

Processes and treatments:

Laminating and glueing: Engineered wood is largely created by binding together layers of particles of wood using adhesives and
advanced manufacturing processes. These processes are used to optimise the strength, stability, and dimensional consistency of
the material while also enabling the creation of large structural elements. The structural qualities depend on the process of different
types.

Heat treatments: Thermally Modified Timber (TMT), offers a more stable and moisture resistant characteristic compared to
untreated wood, reducing the risk of cracking and warping. Thermal modification involves exposure to high temperatures which
reduces the moisture content within the wood cells offering less risk to deformation and greater stabilisation.

Pressure treatments: This treatment is used to force wood preservatives or fire retardants into the internal structure. It can
increase the longevity of timber by preventing its proneness to insect damage and fungal decay.

Fire retardant treatments: A chemical treatment that works to reduce the ignitability, slowing down the surface spread of flame
and, as a result, reducing the heat released during a fire.

Surface treatments: Numerous applications can be applied to wood to enhance its appearance, durability, protection and longevity.
These include painting, staining, varnishing, lacquering, and oil and wax finishes. Traditional techniques include the charring of the
outer layer of wood, which works to protect the inner structure from the natural elements.
4. The role of metal connections between structural elements (The Post-tensioning process)
In post-tensioned timber structures, metal connectors and tendons play an essential role in enhancing the performance, strength,
and stability of engineered wood elements such as glulam (glue-laminated timber), LVL (laminated veneer lumber), and CLT
(cross-laminated timber). Post-tensioning is a technique that applies tension to the timber elements through metal connectors like
steel tendons, plates, or cables, and is particularly beneficial for large, long-span timber constructions.

Key Roles of Metal Connectors in Post-Tensioned Timber Structures:

1. Enhancing Structural Strength and Stability: Metal connectors, including steel tendons or plates, are used in
post-tensioning to apply an initial tension force to timber elements. This pre-stressing improves the structural stiffness,
making timber beams or panels more resistant to bending, shear, and torsion. The tensioned system significantly
increases the load-bearing capacity of the timber, providing greater overall stability.
2. Controlling Deflection and Improving Load Distribution: Deflection is a common issue in timber structures, especially
with large spans. Post-tensioning with metal connectors helps counteract deflection by providing an opposing force,
ensuring that timber elements stay level under load. Additionally, these connectors help to distribute loads more evenly
across timber members, reducing the risk of localized stress concentrations and improving overall load transfer efficiency,
particularly in beams and trusses.
3. Reducing Shrinkage and Moisture Movement: Timber is susceptible to moisture fluctuations, leading to dimensional
changes such as shrinkage or swelling. Post-tensioning helps to counteract moisture-induced movement, ensuring that
timber components maintain their intended shape and structural integrity. This ability to mitigate shrinkage is especially
important in timber systems exposed to changing environmental conditions.
4. Increasing Durability and Long-Term Performance: Metal connectors provide long-term stability by improving fatigue
resistance and durability. Over time, the tensioning helps timber elements withstand repeated load cycles and
environmental exposure, reducing the likelihood of performance degradation.
5. Allowing for Larger Spans and Complex Designs: The post-tensioning system provides additional strength and
stiffness, enabling designers to create larger spans and more complex timber designs. This is particularly beneficial for
architectural applications where wide openings, minimal material use, and flexible layouts are desired. It also supports the
design of seismic-resistant structures by providing lateral stiffness.
6. Seismic and Lateral Load Resistance: Post-tensioned timber systems can be especially valuable in seismic
applications. The tensioned connectors enhance lateral stability, making the structure more resilient to earthquakes and
other lateral forces. This is because the tensioned system helps maintain alignment, ensuring that the timber structure
can re-center after seismic events, significantly reducing residual displacement.

Tendons in Post-Tensioned Timber Structures:

Tendons in post-tensioned timber are primarily made from high-strength steel. Steel tendons are favored because of their
exceptional tensile strength, durability, and ability to withstand significant forces without elongating. These tendons are
typically housed in ducts or channels embedded in the timber components, where they are tensioned after the structure is
assembled.

● Steel Tendons: Steel is commonly used for its strength-to-weight ratio, offering superior performance without adding
unnecessary weight. These tendons come in various forms, including individual strands bundled into cables or solid steel
rods. They are tensioned after placement to pre-stress the timber, enhancing its resistance to bending and deflection.
● Alternative Materials: In specialized cases, carbon fiber or fiberglass tendons might be used due to their corrosion
resistance and lighter weight. However, they are generally more expensive and less common than steel.

Post-Tensioning Effects on Structural Performance:

● Moment-Resisting Connections: Post-tensioning can create moment-resisting connections between beams and
columns by applying a continuous tension force that helps resist bending and shear. For example, in the beam-column
connection, a single steel tendon runs through the beam and column, ensuring both lateral stability and moment
resistance. This is particularly useful in seismic applications, where the structure needs to resist both lateral forces and
moments efficiently.
● Seismic Performance: In seismic zones, the tensioning system helps re-center the structure after an earthquake,
maintaining stability and ensuring that no residual displacement affects the overall integrity of the building. This is crucial
for ensuring that timber structures remain stable during and after seismic events.
● Fire Performance: As with any timber structure, fire performance is a consideration. Post-tensioned timber introduces
unique challenges, especially when high-strength steel tendons are involved. Fire tests have shown that the temperature
of steel tendons can cause them to relax, leading to the potential loss of prestressing force and compromising the
connection. To address these concerns, design methods have been developed to account for fire resistance and tendon
behavior under elevated temperatures.
Post-tensioning with metal connectors in engineered wood structures significantly enhances the strength, stability, and
performance of the timber system. Steel tendons, in particular, play a critical role in pre-stressing the timber elements, controlling
deflection, improving load distribution, and ensuring long-term durability. By allowing for larger spans, seismic resistance, and
complex designs, post-tensioned timber construction is a versatile and efficient solution for modern timber buildings, while also
addressing challenges such as shrinkage and fire safety.

Experimental and analytical analysis of a post-tensioned timber connection (Wanninger, Frangi, 2014):

The test specimen consists of two glulam beams (spruce GL24h and ash D40 for the bottom lamellae) and a hybrid column of
spruce and ash. A tendon runs through the beams, with steel plates at the ends to transfer load, and a hydraulic press controls the
tendon force. Shear force is transferred through friction and supports under the beams.

The tests at ETH Zurich used a rigid steel frame with hydraulic cylinders applying up to 300 kN of load to each beam. Various load
conditions can be tested, with the total weight of each beam and cylinder being 480 kg (Wanninger, Frangi, 2014).

The test without tendon elongation shows three main stages:

1. Before decompression: The beam-column joint is compressed along its full height, with constant stiffness. Both
connections behave identically.
2. After decompression: A gap opens between the column and beam, reducing the neutral axis depth and stiffness. The
moment of decompression is 55 kNm, and the two connections behave differently, with the right being stiffer.
3. Tendon elongation: When the gap reaches the tendon, elongation starts. However, this effect is minor, visible only at the
end of the test with a slight increase in tendon force. The specimen remains elastic throughout, with no residual
deformations.

The test with tendon elongation shows hysteretic behavior. As the load increases, the tendon elongates after a rotation of 6 mrad,
reaching a maximum force of 750 kN. The neutral axis depth decreases significantly, indicating the tendon elongation. Compressive
stress exceeds the elastic range, causing minor energy dissipation. The test exhibits much higher rotations than the one without
tendon elongation, by nearly a factor of 7.

Fig. 6. Graphic test results conducted for applied post-tensioned force of 550kN.

5. A contemporary view on Timber, Engineered Timber from the UK

Timber has been used as a building material for millennia, but recent advancements in engineered products like glulam, LVL and
CLT have revolutionized its application in modern construction. This part focuses on the contemporary view of timber and its
practical implementation, using the Mossbourne Community Academy as a case study.
Fig. 7 (a, b, c). Mossbourne Community Academy.

Environmental Contributions:
Engineered timber stands out for its eco-friendly properties. Unlike steel and concrete, its production requires less energy, and it
sequesters CO₂ during the tree's growth phase. These characteristics make it a key material in achieving net-zero carbon goals,
with increasing adoption driven by global environmental policies.

Performance and Applications:

Engineered timber products like Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and Glulam are structurally comparable to steel and concrete,
making them suitable for various applications, from mid-high rise buildings. These materials are lightweight yet strong, reducing the
demand on foundations and enabling innovative designs that were previously unattainable with traditional materials.

Aesthetic Appeal:
The natural aesthetic of timber is highly valued in modern architecture, providing warmth and a connection to nature. Engineered
timber’s precision allows architects to create bold and expressive designs, aligning with contemporary preferences for sustainable
and visually appealing structures.

Technological Integration:
Digital tools like Building Information Modeling (BIM) have enhanced the precision and efficiency of timber construction.
Prefabrication techniques further reduce construction time, material waste, and on-site labor demands, contributing to timber's
growing appeal in urban and large-scale projects.

Challenges and Limitations:

Despite its advantages, engineered timber faces challenges, including higher upfront costs and the need for specialized skills during
design and assembly. Furthermore, public perceptions regarding its durability and fire safety continue to pose barriers, though
significant advancements in fire resistance and longevity have mitigated many concerns.

Fig. 8. Beam to column connection. Fig. 9. Beam to foundation connection.

Case Study: Mossbourne Community Academy, London

The Mossbourne Community Academy, designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, and completed in 2004, is a secondary
school in London serving over 1,200 students. Its innovative use of engineered timber highlights its potential in educational
infrastructure.
Fig. 10. Mossbourne Community Academy facade with connection details.

Cost and Timeframe:

The project was completed with a budget of approximately £25 million (2004), which included the costs of engineered timber
procurement, prefabrication, and innovative design elements. The planning and design phase lasted 18 months, the construction
process lasted 14 months, significantly faster than traditional methods for similar projects.

Design Considerations:
● Foundations were optimized to minimize material use and reduce embodied carbon. Galvanised steel base plates connect
timber columns to the concrete base foundation, ensuring stability and efficient load transfer.
● Galvanised steel base plates were incorporated at the base of the timber columns to anchor them to the concrete bases.
These base plates include bolted connections to facilitate load transfer and resist lateral forces.
● Primary and secondary glulam beams form the primary structural framework. Steel connectors and dowels create
moment-resisting joints, while bolted connections facilitate efficient assembly and potential disassembly.
● The use of timber reduced the weight of the structure, allowing for a leaner foundation system.
● The roof structure utilized a hybrid system, combining Glulam beams and insulated panels. This provided natural
insulation and supported integrated ventilation systems, reducing the building's reliance on mechanical HVAC systems.

Significant characteristics:
● Fire Resistance: The glulam beams were engineered to char in a controlled manner, maintaining structural integrity
during fire exposure.
● Acoustic Performance: Treated timber elements ensured effective sound dampening, ideal for an educational
environment.
● Durability: Properly maintained engineered timber offers a lifespan comparable to steel and concrete.
● External surface treatment: The external beams and columns were covered with a capping of Iroko hardwood. This
provides additional protection to the beams from climatic conditions and includes a drip detail to reduce the amount of
water that runs down the face of the structure.

Sustainability Features:
Sustainability was a cornerstone of the project, with extensive use of FSC-certified timber ensuring responsible material sourcing.
Timber components were prefabricated, reducing waste and enhancing construction efficiency.
● The timber acted as a carbon sink, offsetting a portion of the project's emissions.
● Natural insulation properties of timber contributed to reduced operational energy demands.
● Integrated ventilation systems within the timber structure supported passive cooling and heating.

These measures aligned with the academy’s goal to be an environmentally conscious and energy-efficient building.

6. Conclusion
To summarise, engineered timber has emerged as a viable structural alternative to traditional materials such as concrete or steel,
offering significant advantages including, environmental, structural durability, cost and time efficiency and aesthetic benefits. Thanks
to contemporary techniques such as the post-tensioning process with metal connections, engineered timber has materialised its
potential into the sphere of large-scale projects, in comparison to the past, due to improved strength, stability and performance.
Projects like the Mossbourne Community Academy highlight its potential in future sustainable urban design projects. As
technological advancements such as prefabrication continue to enhance its application, timber is poised to play a vital role in the
future of construction.
Figures

Figure 1. Sourced through University resources.

Figure 2. Sourced through University resources.

Figure 3. Švajlenka, J., Pošiváková, T. 2023. Research on the importance of the basic parameters of wood constructions from the
respondents’ point of view. Available at: [Link]

Figure 4. LS3P. 2024. Cross Laminated Timber. Available at: [Link]

Figure 5. Glulam. Available at: [Link] CLT. Available at:

[Link] LVL. Available at:[Link]

Figure 6. Wanninger, F., Frangi, A. 2014. Experimental and analytical analysis of a post-tensioned timber connection under gravity loads.
Available at: [Link]

Figure 7. RSHP. Mossbourne Community Academy. Available at: [Link]

Figure 8. Available at: [Link]

Figure 9. Available at:

[Link]

Figure 10. Author's work adapted from: RSHP. Mossbourne Community Academy. Available at:
[Link]

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