MODULE - 3
ENVIRONMENT
AND
ECOSYSTEM
Contents
Environment: Introduction, Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies - Definition, Scope and Importance,
Need for Public Awareness.
Ecosystem: Concept, Energy Flow, Structure and Function
of an Ecosystem. Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological
Pyramids, Forest Ecosystem, Grassland Ecosystem, Desert
Ecosystem and Aquatic Ecosystems, Ecological Succession.
Definition of Environment
• The term environment is derived from the French word
“environing” which means “surrounding”
• Environmental studies deals with every issue that
affects an organism
• Environment is also defined as “a sum total of all the
living and non-living elements and their effects that
influence human life”
• Living or biotic elements:- animals, plants, forests,
fisheries and birds.
• Non-living or abiotic elements:- water, land, sunlight, air
and rocks
Multi Disciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
• The study of environmental components is
multi-disciplinary in nature
• Since it includes all disciplinaries such as
science, humanities, commerce,
meteorology, climatology, geography and
other disciplines
• An environmental study is a multi-
disciplinary programme created to promote
the study of our natural surroundings
• Life sciences including botany, zoology,
microbiology, genetics, biochemistry,
biotechnology help in understanding the
biotic components and their interactions
FIG: Multi Disciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
• The physical and chemical structure of the biotic components
and energy transfer and flow are understood with the help of
basic concept of physics, chemistry, atmospheric science,
oceanography etc.
• Mathematics, statistics and computer science serve as effective
tools in environmental modeling and management
• Economics, sociology and mass communication provides the
input for dealing with socio-economic aspects associated with
various developmental activities
• A synthesis with environmental engineering, civil engineering
and chemical engineering form the basis for various
technologies dealing with the control of environmental
pollution, waste treatment and development of cleaner
technologies that are important for protection of environment
• Environmental laws and policies provide the tools for
effective management and protection of the environment
These constant interactions between the living and the
nonliving components inter-relate the various sciences and
therefore a clear knowledge of all sciences is required to
understand the problem related to the environment and to
find the solution for the same.
Inter/multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science
Eg:-Air Pollution
Sl. Environmental issue/topics Major subject/topic knowledge
No. required
1 Nature and reaction of air Chemistry and chemical
pollutants engineering
2 Effects of air pollutants on Zoology and botany and various
human beings, animals and branches of life science
plants
3 Effect of air pollutants on Meteorology, thermodynamics,
materials geography
4 Effect of climate on air pollution Mathematical modeling, etc.
5 Air pollution control devices Physics, chemistry and various
branches of engineering
6 History of air pollution and air History
Pollution episodes
Sl. Environmental issue/topics Major subject/Topic knowledge
No. required
7 Economic impacts of air Economics, demography
pollution
8 Sociological impacts of air Sociology
pollution
9 Alternative fuels Various branches of physical sciences
10 Conservation of resources Various branches of physical and
and pollution control political Sciences
11 Ozone hole and global Almost all fields under the sun has
warming got Something to contribute to the
understanding and prevention of
these phenomenon.
Scope of Environmental Studies
Scope of the environmental studies is very broad and it
encompasses many areas and aspects broadly listed below:-
• Natural resources-conservation: natural aspects such as forests
contribute towards maintaining a balance in the environment,
managing and maintaining of forests and wild life is an
important task under natural resources conservation
• Ecosystem structure and function: the study of the ecosystem
mainly consists of the study of the processes that link with the
biotic components to the non-living (or) abiotic components
• Environmental pollution and control: with the knowledge of
the environmental science one can look for methods to control
pollution and manage waste effectively
• Environmental management: there are several independent
environmental consultants working with the central and
state pollution control boards.
• These consultants offer advice related to environment
problems and their solutions. The consultants involved in
policy making, pollution control and maintenance of
ecological balance
• Research and development: with increase in public
awareness, regarding environment issues, there is
tremendous scope for research and development in this
field.
• Research is conducted in order to develop theories of
monitoring and controlling environment pollution
• Environmental journalism: there is an increasing demand for
people who can report on environment issues to generate
awareness among people.
• Environmental journalism is an emerging field which helps in
bringing environmental problems to public notice
• Industry: environmental scientists work towards maintaining
ecological balance, conservation of biodiversity and preserve
the natural resources.
• Rapid industrialization is increasingly degrading the
environment to minimize this, there is a growing trend towards
manufacturing of “green” goods and products.
Importance of Environmental Studies
Environmental studies are important because of the following
reasons.
• It gives information regarding the changes that takes place due
to anthropogenic factors and helps gain skills of analyzing
various environmental systems and the effect of human
activities on them
• Environmental studies help to achieve sustainable
development and understand the relationship between
development and the environment
• This discipline helps to educate people regarding their duties
towards environmental protection
• Environment is one subject that is actually global in nature
• Environmental study deals with the analysis of the processes in
water, air, land, soil, and organism which leads to pollution (or)
environment degradation
• It also deals with the most important issues like safe and clean
drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air,
healthy food for man and for development
• The discipline provides us with basic knowledge of the
environment and various environmental issues
• It examines the scientific basis for environmental and social
concerns about our present energy needs, global climate changes,
toxic emission and waste disposal
• It also provides knowledge about the development and utilization
of energy resources and the role of public policy.
• Environmental law, business administration and environmental
engineering are emerging as new career opportunities for
environment protection and management
• Environmental studies also aims to protect biodiversity growth
in human population and the resulting increase in material
consumption and technological development has increased the
rate and scale of degradation of the environment
• The concepts from environmental studies can be applied to the
study of agriculture and the design of sustainable production
system
• With the pollution control laws becoming more strengthen, are
finding it difficult to dispose off the produced wastes
Need for Public Awareness
• Earth’s resources are diminishing and our environment is
being increasingly degraded by human activities and hence
something needs to be done
• Government alone cannot perform all the clean-up functions
• Individual/group efforts in their own every possible way has
to be made to protect our environment
• Mass public awareness: newspapers, radio, television
strongly influences public opinion on conserving our
environment
• The Active co-operation of every one, every level of social
organization is needed for issues concerning environment
Suggested Further Activities for Creating Awareness
• Join a group to study nature, such as WWF-
I or BNHS, or any other environmental The World Wide Fund
group for Nature Inc. (WWF)
is an international non-
• Begin reading newspaper articles and governmental
periodicals such as down to earth, WWF-I organization founded in
newsletter, BNHS hornbill etc..., 1961 that works in the
field of wilderness
• Lobby for conserving resources by taking preservation and the
up the cause of environmental issues reduction of human
impact on the
during discussions with friends and environment.
relatives
Bombay Natural History
• Practice and promote issues such as saving Society (BNHS), a pan-
paper, saving water, reducing use of India wildlife research
plastics, practicing the 3R’S principle of organization, has been
promoting the cause of
reduce, reuse, recycle and proper waste nature conservation since
disposal 1883
• Join local movements that support activities such as saving trees
in your area, go on nature treks, recycle waste, buy
environmentally friendly products
• Practice and promote good civic sense such as no spitting or
tobacco chewing, no throwing garbage on the road, no smoking
in public places
• Take part in events organized on world environment day, wildlife
week etc..,
• Visit a national park or sanctuary, or spend time in whatever
nature you have near your home.
Ecosystem
• Energy flow
• Structure and function of an ecosystem.
• Food chains
• Food webs and ecological pyramids,
• Forest ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem,
• Desert ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystems
• Ecological succession
Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit
comprising of living organisms and their non-living
environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting
system
• Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of
organisms, the flows of energy and materials between abiotic
and biotic components of ecosystems
Structure of Ecosystem
1. Abiotic or non-living components or physical components
2. Biotic or Living components
Function of organisms in an ecosystem
• Producer (autotrophy): make food; plants, algae
• Consumer (heterotrophy): eat other organisms
• Decomposer: eat dead organic matter; bacteria and fungi
Classes of Consumers
• Herbivore – primary consumer – eats plants
• Carnivores – secondary – meat eaters; eat herbivores
• Tertiary – feed on carnivores
• Omnivores – eat plants/animals
Components that make up the structural aspects of an ecosystem
include:
• Inorganic aspects – C, N, O2, H2O
• Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, and Lipids – link
abiotic to biotic aspects
• Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.
• Producers – Plants
• Macro consumers– Large animals
• Micro consumers –absorbers– fungi
Functional aspects
1) Energy cycles
2) Food chains
3) Diversity-inter linkages between organisms
4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles
5) Evolution
Trophic Level in Ecosystem
Energy Flow in Ecosystem
• All organisms must obtain a supply of energy and nutrients from their
environment in order to survive.
• The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of
energy from the SUN. Because, it is the first step in the production of energy
for living things, it is called “primary production”
• Photosynthesis -- chemical reaction where green plants use water & carbon
dioxide to store the sun’s energy in glucose.
• Energy is stored in glucose(c6h12o6), glucose is stored as starch in plants
• The majority of autotrophs are photoautotrophs that harness the energy of
the sun and pass some of this energy onto consumers through feeding
pathways
• The energy contained within producers and consumers is ultimately passed
to the decomposers that are responsible for the constant recycling of
nutrients
• Thus, there is a one-way flow of energy through the biotic community and
a cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components of
ecosystem
• Energy flow cannot occur in reverse direction.
Water Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Food Chains, Food Webs & Ecological Pyramids
The transfer of food energy between the organisms in an
ecosystem can be tracked by constructing food chains, food
webs, pyramids of numbers and energy flow diagrams
Food Chain
• Plants by photosynthesis convert solar energy. Small
herbivores consume the vegetable matter and convert into
animal matter which in turn eaten by large carnivores
• A food chain may be defined as, “the transfer of energy
and nutrients through a series of organisms with repeated
process of eating and being eaten”
• In an ecosystem, all the organisms are linked together with
one another by food relationship
• Each organism living or dead is potential food for some
other organism
Food Web
• The food relationship
between various organisms
is being depicted by linking
all the possible prey and
predators of different food
level
• In an ecosystem linking of
feeding habit relations will
provide a food web or
Interlocking pattern of
several interlinked food
chains is termed as FOOD
WEB
Ecological Pyramids
An Ecological pyramid is a
graphical representation
that shows the relative
amounts of energy or
matter contained within
each tropic level in a food
chain or food web.
An ecological pyramid
shows the relationship
between consumers and
producers at different
tropic levels in an
ecosystem.
Cont.…
• In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers, utilize energy
directly from sunlight and convert it into matter. A large number
of these organisms form the most basic, or first ‘trophic level’ of
the food pyramid
• The herbivorous animals that eat plants are at the second trophic
leveland are called primary consumers
• The predators that feed on them form the third trophic level and
are known as secondary consumers
• Only a few animals form the third trophic level consisting of
carnivores at the apex of the food pyramid. This is how energy
is used by living creatures and flows through the ecosystem
from its base to the apex
Forest Ecosystem
• Forests are formed by a community of plants which is
predominantly defined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and
ground cover
• A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of
trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation usually in a closed
canopy. It is derived from Latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’
• A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all
plants, animals and micro-organisms (Biotic components) in
that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical
(abiotic) factors of the environment
Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem
Forest ecosystem has two parts: Biotic components & Abiotic
components
I. Biotic components
Various biotic components of a forest ecosystem form three
functional groups, they are:
i) Producer Organisms
In a forest, the producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different
kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that
climate. Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and
ground vegetation are also producers.
Cont.…
ii) Consumers
In a forest, consumers are of three main types
Primary Consumers
• These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers.
• E.g.: Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves.
• Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on
shoots and/or fruits of trees
Secondary Consumers
• These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers.
•E.g.: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes
Tertiary Consumer
• These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary
consumers. These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger
Cont.…
iii) Decomposers
These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like
• Bacteria (Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas)
• Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium)
• Actinomycetes (Streptomyces)
They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus
decomposition takes place and nutrients are released for reuse
Cont.…
II. Abiotic components
These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in
the soil & atmosphere. In addition dead organic debris is also
found littered in forests.
Characteristic features of forest ecosystems.
• Seasonality: In countries that have seasonal climates, forest
ecosystems will change with the seasons
• Deciduous or evergreen: A forest may be deciduous (i.e. it sheds its
leaves in winter) or evergreen (i.e. its leaves stay green and intact all
the time), or it may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen trees
• Different levels: Some forest ecosystems such as rain forests, feature
several distinct levels – such as the forest floor, the lower canopy, the
upper canopy and the tree tops
• Attractive to birds: Many bird species nest in tree tops and this makes
forest ecosystems attractive to birds
• Attractive to insects: Many insects live in tree bark, leaf mulch or
flowers and as such they find forest ecosystems very attractive places
to make their homes
Importance of forest ecosystems.
• The lungs of the world: The Amazon rain forest is described as a
biotic pump – like a giant green lung that releases oxygen into the
atmosphere and locks away carbon
• Ancient: Some of our forests are truly ancient, and much older than
many human civilizations
• Biodiversity: All of our forest ecosystems are so important for
biodiversity. In fact, biologists very often claim that they are still
discovering new species in the Amazon rain forest on a regular basis
• Homes for humans: Forest ecosystems are not just habitats for
animals. Many human communities, including indigenous
communities, live in forests all over the world
• Protecting the earth: Forests keep the earth rich in minerals, protect
it from desertification by providing a shield against winds, and so on
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• Grassland ecosystem is a biological community that contains few
trees or shrubs, is characterized by mixed herbaceous (non woody)
vegetation cover, and is dominated by grasses or grass like plants
• Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil
depth and quality is poor
• The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and
shrubs, but is sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during
the monsoon
• Many of the grasses and other small herbs become dry and the part
above the ground dies during the summer months. In the next
monsoon the grass cover grows back from the root stock and the
seeds of the previous year
• This change gives grasslands a highly seasonal appearance with
periods of increased growth followed by a dormant phase
Cont.…
I. Biotic Components
I) Producer Organisms
In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs &
shrubs also contribute to primary production of biomass.
II) Consumers
In a grassland, consumers are of three main types;
A) Primary Consumers
The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on grasses.
These are grazing animals such as cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, deer,
rabbits etc. Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc
are also present.
B) Secondary Consumers
These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers (herbivores)
such as frogs, snakes, lizards, birds, jackals etc.
C) Tertiary Consumers
These include hawks etc. Which feed on secondary consumers.
Cont.…
III) Decomposers
These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like
• Bacteria (Bacillus sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas)
• Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium)
• Actinomycetes (Streptomyces)
They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus
decomposition takes place and nutrients are released for reuse.
II. Abiotic components
These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in
the soil & aerial environment. The essential elements like C, H,
N, O, P, S etc. are supplied by water, nitrogen, nitrates, sulphates,
phosphates present in soil & atmosphere.
Types of Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland ecosystem contains five types of grasslands they are
• Tropical Grassland
• Temperate Grassland
• Flooded Grassland
• Montane Grassland
• Desert Grassland
(Above types should be explain briefly for explanation refer
textbook or collect information through online)
Cont.…
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no
precipitation
• Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual
precipitation of less than 250 mm per year
• It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface. Deserts are
characterized by hot days & cold nights
• Soils of deserts often have abundant nutrients but little or no
organic matter
Structure and Functions of Desert Ecosystems
I. Biotic components
i) Producer Organisms
• In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses
& a few trees
• Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining
plants adapted to arid climate or soil conditions) & hardy
grasses. Besides some lower plants such as lichens are also
present
ii) Consumer Organisms
• These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are
capable of living in xeric Conditions Besides some nocturnal
rodents, birds & some mammalians like camel etc. are also
found
Cont.…
iii) Decomposers
• Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic
matter, decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem
• The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of
which are thermophilic
II. Abiotic components
• Due to high temperature & very low rainfall, the organic
substances are poorly present in the soil
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
• Aquatic ecosystems deal with biotic community present in water
bodies. In terrestrial ecosystem, carbon dioxide & oxygen are present
in gaseous form whereas in aquatic ecosystem, these are available in
dissolved state
• Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental
functions
For example:-
• They recycle nutrients, purify water, recharge ground water and
provide habitats for wildlife
• Aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very
important to the tourism industry, especially in coastal region
Depending upon the quality and nature of water, the aquatic
ecosystem are categorized into:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem and
2. Marine Ecosystem
1. FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
• Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.8% of the earth's surface and
contain 0.01% of its total water
• Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish
species
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
• Lentic: slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes
• Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers
• Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated with water or
inundated for at least part of the time.
Lakes & Pond Ecosystem
• Pond is a place where living
organisms interact with biotic
& abiotic components. Lakes
are usually big standing
freshwater bodies
• They have a shallow water
zone called littoral zone; an
open water zone where
effective penetration of solar
light takes place, called
limnetic zone and a deep
water zone where light
penetration is negligible,
called profoundal zone
Cont.…
Biotic components
I) Producer Organisms
It includes submerged, free floating and amphibious
macrophytes (like; hydrilla, wolfia, azolla, Typha etc.) And minute
floating and suspended lower phytoplanktons (like; Ulothrix,
spirogyra etc.)
II) Consumer Organisms
A)primary consumers these are zooplanktons (ciliates,
flagellates, other protozoan, small crustaceans) and benthos
B)secondary consumers these are carnivores like insects and
fishes feeding on herbivores) tertiary consumers: these are the
large fishes feeding on small fishes
Cont.…
iii) Decomposers
Micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes
II. Abiotic component
These are the inorganic as well as organic substances present
in the bottom soil or dissolved in water. In addition, to the
minerals, some dead organic matter is also present
2. MARINE or OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
• Marine ecosystems are among the Earth's aquatic ecosystems.
They include: Oceans, Estuaries and Lagoons, Mangroves and
Coral reefs, the Deep sea and the Sea floor
• These are the gigantic reservoirs of water covering
approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361
million square kilometers)
• These ecosystems are different from freshwater ecosystem
mainly because of its salty water. The salt concentration in an
open sea is usually 3.5%
Cont.…
I. Biotic components
i) Producers
It includes phytoplanktons (diatoms, dinoflagellates), large
seaweeds (mainly algae like Chlorophyceae, phaeophycean &
Rhodophyceae; angiosperms like Ruppia, Zostera, Posidonia ),
and mangrove vegetation (like Rhizophora, Carapa etc.,)
ii) Consumers
a)Primary consumers: These are herbivores and feed directly on
producers (Crustaceans, Mollusks, fish etc.)
b)Secondary consumers: These are carnivorous fishes (Herring,
Shad and Mackerel)
c)Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivorous fishes (Cod,
Haddock, etc.)
Cont.…
iii) Decomposers
These are micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi
II. Abiotic components
High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt concentration, variable dissolved
oxygen content, light & temperature make a unique
physiochemical conditions in marine water.
Ecological Succession
• Ecological succession is defined as, “A change in the
community in which new populations of organisms gradually
replace existing ones”
• Ecological succession is the process that describes how the
structure of a biological community (i.e. An interacting group of
various species in a desert, forest, grassland, marine
environment and so on) changes over time
• Ecological succession occurs due to the changes in physical
environment and population of species.
• In an ecosystem, a species requires a particular set of
environmental conditions under which they grow and
reproduce
• Once the environmental conditions alter, the first species may
fail to flourish and another species may thrive
Types of Ecological Succession
There are two types of ecological succession
Primary succession
• Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as
the regions devoid of soil or the areas where the soil is unable to
sustain life
• When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth
was only made up of rocks.
• These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form
soil. The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life.
• These plants help in the survival of different animals and progress from
primary succession to the climax community
• If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place
Primary Succession
Cont..
Secondary succession
• Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem
gets destroyed
• For e.g., A community gets destroyed by fire. It gets
recolonized after the destruction. This is known as
secondary ecological succession
• Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall
trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the
organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community
arrives
Secondary Succession
Cont..
Cyclical succession
• This is only the change in the structure of an ecosystem on a
cyclic basis. Some plants remain dormant for the rest of the
year and emerge all at once
• This drastically changes the structure of an ecosystem
Difference Between Types of Ecological Succession
Properties Primary Succession Secondary Succession
Meaning It is a type of succession It is the type of succession
that starts from barren or which occurs in a habitat
inhabitant land where life existed
previously
Occurs It occurs in lifeless or It occurs in recently
barren areas denuded or previously
inhabited areas
Time to complete Takes around 1000 years, It takes place in 50 to 200
which may be more years
Physical conditions Conditions are least As life once existed. There
suitable for the survival of is the presence of soil and
life. Soil is devoid of may also even some
nutrients or there is no nutrients in the soil
soil at all
Humus Humus is absent Humus is present due to
the presence of previous
inhabitants
Properties Primary Succession Secondary Succession
Environment It begins with an The environment is
unfavorable more or less favorable
environment right from the beginning
Reproduction No previous community Reproductive structure
so reproductive varies from primary
structure starts from succession due to the
the first inhabiting presence of previous
species communities in that
habitat
Examples Bare rock, ponds, The areas that are
desert, etc.. affected by natural
calamities, covered
under deforestation by
human interactions etc.
