Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B.
Navathe
Unit 4
Basic SQL
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Outline (Part 1)
◼ SQL Data Definition and Data Types
◼ Specifying Constraints in SQL
◼ Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
◼ INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in
SQL
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic SQL
◼ SQL language
◼ Considered one of the major reasons for the
commercial success of relational databases
◼ SQL
◼ The origin of SQL is relational predicate calculus called
tuple calculus (see Ch.8) which was proposed initially
as the language SQUARE.
◼ SQL Actually comes from the word “SEQUEL” which was the
original term used in the paper: “SEQUEL TO SQUARE” by
Chamberlin and Boyce. IBM could not copyright that term, so they
abbreviated to SQL and copyrighted the term SQL.
◼ Now popularly known as “Structured Query Language”.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Data Definition, Data Types,
Standards
◼ Terminology:
◼ Table, row, and column used for relational model
terms relation, tuple, and attribute
◼ The language has features for : Data definition, Data
Manipulation, Transaction control (Transact-SQL, Ch.
20), Indexing (Ch.17), Security specification (Grant and
Revoke- see Ch.30), Active databases (Ch.26), Multi-
media (Ch.26), Distributed databases (Ch.23) etc.
◼ CREATE statement
◼ Main SQL command for data definition
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Schema and Catalog Concepts in
SQL
◼ Variations in existing RDBMS systems
◼ SQL schema
◼ Identified by a schema name
◼ Includes an authorization identifier and descriptors
for each element
◼ Schema elements include
◼ Tables, constraints, views, domains, and other
constructs
◼ Each statement in SQL ends with a semicolon
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Schema and Catalog Concepts in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ CREATE SCHEMA statement
◼ CREATE SCHEMA COMPANY AUTHORIZATION
‘Jsmith’;
◼ Catalog
◼ Named collection of schemas in an SQL
environment
◼ SQL also has the concept of a cluster of catalogs.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The CREATE TABLE Command in
SQL
◼ Specifying a new relation
◼ Provide name of table
◼ Specify attributes, their types and initial
constraints
◼ Can optionally specify schema:
◼ CREATE TABLE [Link] ...
or
◼ CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ...
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The CREATE TABLE Command in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Base tables (base relations)
◼ Relation and its tuples are actually created and
stored as a file by the DBMS
◼ Virtual relations (views)
◼ Created through the CREATE VIEW statement.
Do not correspond to any physical file.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
COMPANY relational database
schema (Fig. 5.7)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
One possible database state for the
COMPANY relational database schema
(Fig. 5.6)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
One possible database state for the
COMPANY relational database schema –
continued (Fig. 5.6)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
An Example of CREATE Statement
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements
for defining the COMPANY schema from Figure
5.7 (Fig. 6.1)
continued on next slide
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition
statements for defining the COMPANY
schema from Figure 5.7 (Fig. 6.1)-continued
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The CREATE TABLE Command in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Some foreign keys may cause errors
◼ Specified either via:
◼ Circular references
◼ Or because they refer to a table that has not yet
been created
◼ DBA’s have ways to stop referential integrity
enforcement to get around this problem.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
◼ Basic data types
◼ Numeric data types
◼ Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT
◼ Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and
DOUBLE PRECISION
◼ Character-string data types
◼ Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)
◼ Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR
VARYING(n), CHARACTER VARYING(n)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Bit-string data types
◼ Fixed length: BIT(n)
◼ Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)
◼ BLOB (Binary Large Object), BLOB(10G)
◼ Boolean data type
◼ Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
◼ DATE data type
◼ Ten positions
◼ Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-
MM-DD
◼ Multiple mapping functions available in RDBMSs to change
date formats
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Additional data types
◼ Timestamp data type
Includes the DATE and TIME fields
◼ Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal
fractions of seconds
◼ Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier
◼ DATE, TIME, Timestamp, INTERVAL data types
can be cast or converted to string formats for
comparison.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Domain
◼ Name used with the attribute specification
◼ Makes it easier to change the data type for a
domain that is used by numerous attributes
◼ Improves schema readability
◼ Example:
◼ CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);
◼ TYPE
◼ User Defined Types (UDTs) are supported for
object-oriented applications. (See Ch.12) Uses the
command: CREATE TYPE
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Basic constraints:
◼ Relational Model has 3 basic constraint types that
are supported in SQL:
◼ Key constraint: A primary key value cannot be
duplicated
◼ Entity Integrity constraint: A primary key value
cannot be null
◼ Referential integrity constraints : The “foreign key
“ must have a value that is already present as a
primary key, or may be null.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Attribute Constraints
Other Restrictions on attribute domains:
◼ Default value of an attribute
◼ DEFAULT <value>
◼ NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
(NOT NULL)
◼ CHECK clause
◼ Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber >
0 AND Dnumber < 21);
◼ Restrict to numbers 1-20
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints
◼ PRIMARY KEY clause
◼ Specifies one or more attributes that make up the
primary key of a relation
◼ Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;
◼ UNIQUE clause
◼ Specifies alternate (secondary) keys (called
CANDIDATE keys in the relational model).
◼ Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints (cont’d.)
◼ FOREIGN KEY clause
◼ Default operation: reject update on violation
◼ Attach referential triggered action clause
◼ Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET
DEFAULT
◼ Action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET
DEFAULT is the same for both ON DELETE and ON
UPDATE
◼ CASCADE option suitable for “relationship” relations
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Giving Names to Constraints
◼ Using the Keyword CONSTRAINT
◼ Name a constraint (unique name)
◼ Useful for later altering
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Default attribute values and referential
integrity triggered action specification (Fig.
6.2)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Constraints on Tuples
Using CHECK
◼ Additional Constraints on individual tuples within a
relation are also possible using CHECK
◼ CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE
statement
◼ Apply to each tuple individually
◼ A manager’s starting date should be after a
department’s creation
◼ CHECK (Dept_create_date <= Mgr_start_date);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
◼ SELECT statement
◼ One basic statement for retrieving information from
a database
◼ SQL allows a table to have two or more tuples
that are identical in all their attribute values
◼ Unlike relational model (relational model is strictly
set-theory based)
◼ Multiset or bag behavior
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE
Structure of Basic SQL Queries
◼ Basic form of the SELECT statement:
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure
of Basic SQL Queries (cont’d.)
◼ Logical comparison operators
◼ =, <, <=, >, >=, and <>
◼ Projection attributes
◼ Attributes whose values are to be retrieved
◼ Selection condition
◼ Boolean condition that must be true for any
retrieved tuple. Selection conditions include join
conditions (see Ch.8) when multiple relations are
involved.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic Retrieval Queries
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic Retrieval Queries (Contd.)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Ambiguous Attribute Names
◼ Same name can be used for two (or more)
attributes in different relations
◼ As long as the attributes are in different relations
◼ Must qualify the attribute name with the relation
name to prevent ambiguity
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Aliasing and Renaming
◼ Aliases or tuple variables
◼ Declare alternative relation names E and S to refer
to the EMPLOYEE relation twice in a query:
Query 8. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first and last name
and the first and last name of his or her immediate supervisor.
◼ SELECT [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.Super_ssn=[Link];
◼ Recommended practice to abbreviate names and
to prefix same or similar attribute from multiple
tables.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Aliasing,Renaming and Tuple
Variables (contd.)
◼ The attribute names can also be renamed
EMPLOYEE AS E(Fn, Mi, Ln, Ssn, Bd,
Addr, Sex, Sal, Sssn, Dno)
◼ Note that the relation EMPLOYEE now has a
variable name E which corresponds to a tuple
variable
◼ The “AS” may be dropped in most SQL
implementations
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk
◼ Missing WHERE clause
◼ Indicates no condition on tuple selection
◼ Effect is a CROSS PRODUCT
◼ Result is all possible tuple combinations (or the
Algebra operation of Cartesian Product– see Ch.8)
result
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Unspecified WHERE Clause
and Use of the Asterisk (cont’d.)
◼ Specify an asterisk (*)
◼ Retrieve all the attribute values of the selected
tuples
◼ The * can be prefixed by the relation name; e.g.,
EMPLOYEE *
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Tables as Sets in SQL
◼ SQL does not automatically eliminate duplicate tuples in
query results
◼ For aggregate operations (See sec 7.1.7) duplicates must
be accounted for
◼ Use the keyword DISTINCT in the SELECT clause
◼ Only distinct tuples should remain in the result
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Tables as Sets in SQL (cont’d.)
◼ Set operations
◼ UNION, EXCEPT (difference), INTERSECT
◼ Corresponding multiset operations: UNION ALL,
EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL)
◼ Type compatibility is needed for these operations
to be valid
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Substring Pattern Matching and
Arithmetic Operators
◼ LIKE comparison operator
◼ Used for string pattern matching
◼ % replaces an arbitrary number of zero or more
characters
◼ underscore (_) replaces a single character
◼ Examples: WHERE Address LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’;
◼ WHERE Ssn LIKE ‘_ _ 1_ _ 8901’;
◼ BETWEEN comparison operator
E.g., in Q14 :
WHERE(Salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 40000)
AND Dno = 5;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Arithmetic Operations
◼ Standard arithmetic operators:
◼ Addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (*), and
division (/) may be included as a part of SELECT
◼ Query 13. Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on
the ‘ProductX’ project is given a 10 percent raise.
SELECT [Link], [Link], 1.1 * [Link] AS Increased_sal
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, WORKS_ON AS W, PROJECT AS P
WHERE [Link]=[Link] AND [Link]=[Link] AND
[Link]=‘ProductX’;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Ordering of Query Results
◼ Use ORDER BY clause
◼ Keyword DESC to see result in a descending order
of values
◼ Keyword ASC to specify ascending order explicitly
◼ Typically placed at the end of the query
ORDER BY [Link] DESC, [Link] ASC,
[Link] ASC
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic SQL Retrieval Query Block
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
Statements in SQL
◼ Three commands used to modify the database:
◼ INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
◼ INSERT inserts a tuple (row) in a relation (table)
◼ UPDATE may update a number of tuples (rows) in
a relation (table) that satisfy the condition
◼ DELETE may also update a number of tuples
(rows) in a relation (table) that satisfy the
condition
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
INSERT
◼ In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more
tuples to a relation
◼ Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command
◼ Constraints on data types are observed
automatically
◼ Any integrity constraints as a part of the DDL
specification are enforced
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The INSERT Command
◼ Specify the relation name and a list of values for
the tuple. All values including nulls are supplied.
◼ The variation below inserts multiple tuples where
a new table is loaded values from the result of a
query.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
BULK LOADING OF TABLES
◼ Another variation of INSERT is used for bulk-loading
of several tuples into tables
◼ A new table TNEW can be created with the same
attributes as T and using LIKE and DATA in the
syntax, it can be loaded with entire data.
◼ EXAMPLE:
CREATE TABLE D5EMPS LIKE EMPLOYEE
(SELECT E.*
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE [Link]=5)
WITH DATA;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
DELETE
◼ Removes tuples from a relation
◼ Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be
deleted
◼ Referential integrity should be enforced
◼ Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time
(unless CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity
constraint)
◼ A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in
the relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes
an empty table
◼ The number of tuples deleted depends on the number
of tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The DELETE Command
◼ Removes tuples from a relation
◼ Includes a WHERE clause to select the tuples to be
deleted. The number of tuples deleted will vary.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE
◼ Used to modify attribute values of one or more
selected tuples
◼ A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be
modified
◼ An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes
to be modified and their new values
◼ Each command modifies tuples in the same
relation
◼ Referential integrity specified as part of DDL
specification is enforced
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE (contd.)
◼ Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to
'Bellaire' and 5, respectively
U5: UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire',
DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE (contd.)
◼ Example: Give all employees in the 'Research'
department a 10% raise in salary.
U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')
◼ In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on
the original SALARY value in each tuple
◼ The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of =
refers to the old SALARY value before modification
◼ The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of =
refers to the new SALARY value after modification
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Summary Part 1
◼ SQL
◼ A Comprehensive language for relational database
management
◼ Data definition, queries, updates, constraint
specification, and view definition
◼ Covered :
◼ Data definition commands for creating tables
◼ Commands for constraint specification
◼ Simple retrieval queries
◼ Database update commands
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Part 2
More SQL: Complex Queries, View
and Schema Modification
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Outline (Part 2)
◼ More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
◼ Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL
◼ Schema Modification in SQL
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic
◼ Meanings of NULL
◼ Unknown value
◼ Unavailable or withheld value
◼ Not applicable attribute
◼ Each individual NULL value considered to be
different from every other NULL value
◼ SQL uses a three-valued logic:
◼ TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN (like Maybe)
◼ NULL = NULL comparison is avoided
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Three-Valued
Logic
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)
◼ SQL allows queries that check whether an
attribute value is NULL
◼ IS or IS NOT NULL
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Nested Queries, Tuples,
and Set/Multiset Comparisons
◼ Nested queries
◼ Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE
clause of another query
◼ Outer query and nested subqueries
◼ Comparison operator IN
◼ Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values
V
◼ Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Nested Queries (cont’d.)
Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve
employee Smith either as worker or as a manager of the
department that controls the project:
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Nested Queries (cont’d.)
◼ Use tuples of values in comparisons
◼ Place them within parentheses
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Nested Queries (cont’d.)
◼ Use other comparison operators to compare a
single value v
◼ = ANY (or = SOME) operator [equivalent to IN]
◼ Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in
the set
◼ Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or
SOME): >, >=, <, <=, and <>
◼ ALL: value must exceed all values from nested
query
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
General Form of ALL, ANY, SOME
SELECT [column_name ]
FROM [table_name]
WHERE expression operator
{ALL | ANY | SOME} ( subquery )
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Nested Queries (cont’d.)
◼ Avoid potential errors and ambiguities
◼ Create tuple variables (aliases) for all tables
referenced in SQL query
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Understanding a nested (correlated
query
For each E tuple,
Evaluate the nested query
which retrieves the Essn values of all D tuples
with the same sex and name as E tuple
If the Ssn value of E tuple is in the result,
then select the E tuple
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Correlated Nested Queries
◼ Queries that are nested using the = or IN
comparison operator can be collapsed into one
single block: E.g., Q16 can be written as:
◼ Q16A: SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, DEPENDENT AS D
WHERE [Link]=[Link] AND [Link]=[Link] AND
[Link]=D.Dependent_name;
◼ Correlated nested query
◼ Evaluated once for each tuple in the outer query
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Explicit Sets and Renaming of
Attributes in SQL
◼ Can use explicit set of values in WHERE clause
Q17: SELECT DISTINCT Essn
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE Pno IN (1, 2, 3);
◼ Use qualifier AS followed by desired new name
◼ Rename any attribute that appears in the result of
a query
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Joined Tables in the
FROM Clause of SQL
◼ Joined table
◼ Permits users to specify a table resulting from a
join operation in the FROM clause of a query
◼ The FROM clause in Q1A
◼ Contains a single joined table. JOIN may also be
called INNER JOIN
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Different Types of JOINed Tables in
SQL
◼ Specify different types of join
◼ NATURAL JOIN
◼ Various types of OUTER JOIN (LEFT, RIGHT,
FULL )
◼ NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S
◼ No join condition specified
◼ Is equivalent to an implicit EQUIJOIN condition for
each pair of attributes with same name from R and
S
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
NATURAL JOIN
◼ Rename attributes of one relation so it can be joined with
another using NATURAL JOIN:
Q1B: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address
FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN
(DEPARTMENT AS DEPT (Dname, Dno, Mssn,
Msdate)))
WHERE Dname=‘Research’;
The above works with [Link] = [Link] as an
implicit join condition
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
INNER and OUTER Joins
◼ INNER JOIN (versus OUTER JOIN)
◼ Default type of join in a joined table
◼ Tuple is included in the result only if a matching tuple exists
in the other relation
◼ LEFT OUTER JOIN
◼ Every tuple in left table must appear in result
◼ If no matching tuple
◼ Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table
◼ RIGHT OUTER JOIN
◼ Every tuple in right table must appear in result
◼ If no matching tuple
◼ Padded with NULL values for attributes of left table
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Example: LEFT OUTER JOIN
SELECT [Link] AS Employee_Name
[Link] AS Supervisor_Name
FROM Employee AS E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEE AS S
ON E.Super_ssn = [Link])
ALTERNATE SYNTAX:
SELECT [Link] , [Link]
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.Super_ssn + = [Link]
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Multiway JOIN in the FROM clause
◼ FULL OUTER JOIN – combines result if LEFT
and RIGHT OUTER JOIN
◼ Can nest JOIN specifications for a multiway join:
Q2A: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Address, Bdate
FROM ((PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
Dnum=Dnumber) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON
Mgr_ssn=Ssn)
WHERE Plocation=‘Stafford’;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Aggregate Functions in SQL
◼ Used to summarize information from multiple
tuples into a single-tuple summary
◼ Built-in aggregate functions
◼ COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
◼ Grouping
◼ Create subgroups of tuples before summarizing
◼ To select entire groups, HAVING clause is used
◼ Aggregate functions can be used in the SELECT
clause or in a HAVING clause
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Renaming Results of Aggregation
◼ Following query returns a single row of computed values
from EMPLOYEE table:
Q19: SELECT SUM (Salary), MAX (Salary), MIN (Salary), AVG
(Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;
◼ The result can be presented with new names:
Q19A: SELECT SUM (Salary) AS Total_Sal, MAX (Salary) AS
Highest_Sal, MIN (Salary) AS Lowest_Sal, AVG
(Salary) AS Average_Sal
FROM EMPLOYEE;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Aggregate Functions in SQL (cont’d.)
◼ NULL values are discarded when aggregate
functions are applied to a particular column
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Aggregate Functions on Booleans
◼ SOME and ALL may be applied as functions on
Boolean Values.
◼ SOME returns true if at least one element in the
collection is TRUE (similar to OR)
◼ ALL returns true if all of the elements in the
collection are TRUE (similar to AND)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Grouping: The GROUP BY Clause
◼ Partition relation into subsets of tuples
◼ Based on grouping attribute(s)
◼ Apply function to each such group independently
◼ GROUP BY clause
◼ Specifies grouping attributes
◼ COUNT (*) counts the number of rows in the
group
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Examples of GROUP BY
◼ The grouping attribute must appear in the SELECT
clause:
Q24: SELECT Dno, COUNT (*), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno;
◼ If the grouping attribute has NULL as a possible value,
then a separate group is created for the null value (e.g.,
null Dno in the above query)
◼ GROUP BY may be applied to the result of a JOIN:
Q25: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Grouping: The GROUP BY and
HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)
◼ HAVING clause
◼ Provides a condition to select or reject an entire
group:
◼ Query 26. For each project on which more than two employees work,
retrieve the project number, the project name, and the number of
employees who work on the project.
Q26: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Combining the WHERE and the
HAVING Clause
◼ Consider the query: we want to count the total number of
employees whose salaries exceed $40,000 in each
department, but only for departments where more than
five employees work.
◼ INCORRECT QUERY:
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Combining the WHERE and the
HAVING Clause (continued)
Correct Specification of the Query:
◼ Note: the WHERE clause applies tuple by tuple
whereas HAVING applies to entire group of
tuples
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL
◼ Concept of a view in SQL
◼ Single table derived from other tables called the
defining tables
◼ Considered to be a virtual table that is not
necessarily populated
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specification of Views in SQL
◼ CREATE VIEW command
◼ Give table name, list of attribute names, and a query to
specify the contents of the view
◼ In V1, attributes retain the names from base tables. In
V2, attributes are assigned names
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specification of Views in SQL
(cont’d.)
◼ Once a View is defined, SQL queries can use the
View relation in the FROM clause
◼ View is always up-to-date
◼ Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user
◼ DROP VIEW command
◼ Dispose of a view
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The DROP Command
◼ DROP command
◼ Used to drop named schema elements, such as
tables, domains, or constraint
◼ Drop behavior options:
◼ CASCADE and RESTRICT
◼ Example:
◼ DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;
◼ This removes the schema and all its elements
including tables, views, constraints, etc.
◼ RESTRICT: drops only nothing in it
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The ALTER table command
◼ Alter table actions include:
◼ Adding or dropping a column (attribute)
◼ Changing a column definition
◼ Adding or dropping table constraints
◼ Example:
◼ ALTER TABLE [Link] ADD
COLUMN Job VARCHAR(12);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Adding and Dropping Constraints
◼ Change constraints specified on a table
◼ Add or drop a named constraint
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Dropping Columns, Default Values
◼ To drop a column
◼ Choose either CASCADE or RESTRICT
◼ CASCADE would drop the column from views etc.
RESTRICT is possible if no views refer to it.
ALTER TABLE [Link] DROP COLUMN
Address CASCADE;
◼ Default values can be dropped and altered :
ALTER TABLE [Link] ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn
DROP DEFAULT;
ALTER TABLE [Link] ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn SET
DEFAULT ‘333445555’;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Table 7.2 Summary of SQL
Syntax
continued on next slide
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Table 7.2 (continued)
Summary of SQL Syntax
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Summary Part 2
◼ Complex SQL:
◼ Nested queries, joined tables (in the FROM
clause), outer joins, aggregate functions, grouping
◼ CREATE VIEW statement and materialization
strategies
◼ Schema Modification for the DBAs using ALTER
TABLE , ADD and DROP COLUMN, ALTER
CONSTRAINT etc.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
