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Computer Networks
A computer network is a set of nodes like computers and networking devices
that are connected through communication for the purpose of communication
and sharing resources(hardware/software) among the users.
I Networks are used to
• Facilitate communication through email / video conferencing / instant
messaging or any other mode. • Share hardware devices like a printer or
scanner
• Enable file sharing
• Share software or operating programs
• Share information Disadvantages of computer network Lack of robustness,
security issue, cost of network
[Link] (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork):
In 1969, The US govt. formed an agency named ARPANET to connect
computers at various universities and defense agencies.
The main objective of ARPANET was to develop a network that could continue
to function efficiently even in the event of a nuclear attack.
III. Internet (INTERconnection NETwork):
The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It is not owned by
anybody. The internet has evolved from ARPANET.
The internet is a globally connected network system that utilizes TCP/IP to
transmit information.
following services are instantly available through internet :
Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services, Online movies and
gaming , Data transfer/file-sharing, Instant messaging , Internet forums ,
Social networking , Online shopping ,Financial services
[Link]: is a client/server software program that allows multiple users
to communicate online with real –time audio, video and text chat in dynamic
3D environments.
[Link] Techniques:
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
Different ways of sending data across the network are:
[Link] Switching:
 • First the complete end-to-end transmission path is established
between the source and the destination computers.
• Then the message is transmitted through the path.
• The main advantage of thistechnique is guaranteed delivery of the
message.
• Mostly used for voice communication

2. Packet Switching:
• Using the TCP protocol a single large message is divided into a
sequence of packets of size limits from 128 to 4096 bytes.
• Each packet is independent and has the address of sender and
destination.
• The IP (Internet protocol) does the routing for the packets. It keeps
track of all the different routes available to the destination. If one
route is not available it finds the alternate route to the destination.
• At the destination, the TCP protocol re-assembles the packets into
the complete message.
• If any packets are lost or damaged, a request is sent to retransmit
the same message.

[Link] COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

[Link] Channel (Transmission media):
A communication channel is either a physical transmission medium such as a
wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio
channel in telecommunications and computer networking.
[Link]:
The amount of data that can be transferred from one point to [Link] is a
measure of the range of frequencies a transmitted signal occupies.
In digital systems, bandwidth is the data speed in bits per second.
In analog systems, bandwidth is measured in terms of the difference between
the highest-frequency signal component and the lowestfrequency signal
component
DATA TRANSFER RATE THAT CAN BE SUPPORTED BY A NETWORK IS
CALLED BANDWIDTH
VII. Identifying Nodes in a Networked Communication
Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device
can identify the sender and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data.
Nodes are distinguished using
• MAC Address
• IP address

.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address stands for

Media Access Control IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
1. Address. Address.

IP Address is either a four-byte (IPv4)

or a sixteen-byte (IPv6) address.
MAC Address is a six [Link]----IPV4 each 0-255
byte hexadecimal [Link]
address. 7:9652 (IPv6 8 group hexadecimal
2. [Link] number)

NIC Card’s Manufacturer

provides the MAC Internet Service Provider provides IP
3. Address. Address.
 .NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address is used to

ensure the physical IP Address is the logical address of the
4. address of a computer. computer.

MAC Address helps in

simply identifying the IP Address identifies the connection of
5. device. the device on the network.

MAC Address of
computer cannot be
changed with time and IP Address modifies with the time and
6. environment. environment.

IP Addresses can be found by a third

MAC Addresses can’t be party.
found easily by a third
7. party.

VIII. Transmission medium:Medium through which data is transferred

.No. Guided Media Unguided Media

1. The signal energy propagates The signal energy propagates

through wires in guided media. through air in unguided media.
 .No. Guided Media Unguided Media

2. Guided media is used for point to Unguided media is generally

point communication. suited for radio broadcasting in
all directions.

3. Signals are in the form of voltage, Signals are in the form of

current or photons in the guided electromagnetic waves in
media. unguided media.

4. Examples of guided media are Examples of unguided media are

twisted pair wires, coaxial cables, microwave or radio links and
optical fiber cables. infrared light.

5. By adding more wires, the It is not possible to obtain

transmission capacity can be additional capacity in unguided
increased in guided media. media.

Difference Between Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, and Optical fiber
Twisted pair Optical fiber
Characteristics cable Co-axial cable cable

Takes place in Takes place in

the electrical the electrical
form over the form over the Takes place in
metallic inner an optical
conducting conductor of form over
Signal transmission wires. the cable. glass fiber.

The external
Affected due to The external magnetic field
external magnetic field is not
External magnetic field magnetic field. is less affected. affected.

The twisted-
pair cable has Co-axial cable Optical fiber
Bandwidth low bandwidth. has moderately cable has a
 Twisted pair Optical fiber
Characteristics cable Co-axial cable cable

high very high

bandwidth. bandwidth.

Electromagnetic EMI can take EMI is reduced EMI is not

interference(EMI) place. to shielding. present.

Easy Fairly easy Difficult to

Installation installation. installation. install.

In twisted pair In optical fiber

Attenuation(Attenuation
is the loss of signal strength cable has very In coaxial cable cable has very
in networking cables or high has low low
connections. ) attenuation. attenuation. attenuation.

Twisted pair
cable supports Moderately Very high
Data rate a low data rate. high data rate. data rate.

Twisted pair Co-axial cable Optical fiber

cable has low has higher cable has the
noise noise highest noise
Noise immunity immunity. immunity. immunity.

The cost is very Cost is Cost is

Cost low. moderate expensive.

Repeater Repeater Repeater

spacing is 2-10 spacing is 1-10 spacing is 10-
Repeater Spacing km. km. 100 km.
Satellite Communication
• It provide worldwide coverage independent to population density.
• Satellite communication Systems offer telecommunication
• (Satellite Phones), positioning and navigation (GPS), broadcasting,
internet, Mobile, TV, etc

IX. Network devices

• Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers,
printers, or any other electronic device to a computer network are called
network devices.
• These devices transfer
➢ data in a fast,
➢ secure and
➢ correct way with some specific functionality over same or different
networks.
• Some devices are installed on the device,
➢ like Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45 connector,
• some are part of the network
➢ router, switch, etc
[Link]
• This is at top among other networking devices and mostly used
networking device.
• This is also known as
➢ network adapter card,
➢ Ethernet Card and
➢ LAN card.
• It allows our PC to communicate with other PCs.
• A PC uses parallel data transmission to transmit data between its
internal parts where as the media that connects this PC with other
device/PCs uses serial data transmission.
• A NIC converts parallel data stream into serial data stream and vice
versa

2. RJ-45 (Registered Jack – 45)

is an eight wired connector that is used to connect computers on a local
area network (LAN), especially Ethernet.
 3. Modem
➢ Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator.
➢ It’s an electronic device used to access the Internet that modulates
carrier waves to encode information to be transmitted and also
demodulates incoming carrier waves to decode the information they
carry.
➢ Modulation means digital to analog signal conversion and its vice versa
is known as demodulation.

4. Hub
5. Switch
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Wifi card
Difference between Hub, Switch and Router :
Sr.
No Hub Switch Router

1. A Hub works on the Switch works on the A router works on

basis of broadcasting. basis of MAC address. the basis of IP
address.
 Sr.
No Hub Switch Router

2. A Hub is a multiport A Switch is a tele- A route reads the

repeater in which a communication device header of incoming
signal introduced at which receives a packet and
the input of any port message from any forward it to the
appears at the device connected to it port for which it is
and then transmits intended there by
the message only to determines the
the device for which route. It can also
the message is perform filtering
intended. and encapsulation

3. Hub is not an A Switch is an A route is more

intelligent device that intelligent device as it sophisticated and
may include amplifier passes on the message intelligent device as
on repeater. to the selective device it can read IP
by inspecting the address and direct
address. the packets to
another network
with specified IP
address. Moreover
routers can built
address tables that
helps in routing
decisions.

Router is a
relatively much
Hub is cheaper as more expensive
compared to switch Switch is an expensive device than hub
4. and router. device than hub. and switch.

[Link]
➢ A networking device capable to convert protocols so that two different
network architecture based system can communicate with each other.
➢ It works as protocol convertor.
➢ Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network
➢ Besides routing data packets, gateways also maintain information about
the host network's internal connection paths and the identified paths of
other remote networks. If a node from one network wants to
 communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will pass the data
packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the destination using the
best possible route.
➢ For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the gateway is usually the
Internet Service Provider that provides access to the entire Internet
➢ a network gateway is placed at the edge of a network, the firewall is
usually integrated with it.
[Link]-Fi cards
➢ Are small and portable cards
➢ that allow your computer to connect to the internet through a wireless
network.
➢ WiFi transmission is through the radio waves
➢ these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such as computers and
cell phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards.
➢ The devices need to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive
the signals and produces a wireless internet connection.
➢ Once a connection is established between userand the network, the
user is prompted with a login screen and password for establishing is
a secure connection.
➢ Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal. If a Wi-Fi card is not installed
inside your computer, you may purchase an external USB antenna
attachment and connect it to your device.
➢ Many computers and mobile devices are now adays equipped with
wireless networking capability and do not require a Wi-Fi card
X. Topology
The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices along
with communication channel is known as Network structure or Network
topology.
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. A tree topology/HYBRID
[Link] Topology
Bus Topology Nodes are connected through a common communication media
like diagram given below
Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to
the length of the bus in both directions. That means, data can be received by
any of the nodes connected to the bus.
Advantages of a Bus topology
➢ Easy to install
➢ Minimal Cable
➢ It works very efficient well when there is a small network.
Disadvantages of a Bus topology
➢ Difficult reconnection
➢ Difficult to find the problem
➢ main cable Break stops all transmission of data
➢ Bus topology is not great for large networks.
➢ Need of terminators are required at both ends of main cable.
➢ This network topology is very slow as compared to other topologies
[Link] Topology

• The star topology uses a separate cable for each node/workstation.

• The cable connects the node to a central device typically a HUB. Hub/
switch
• Advantages of a Star topology
➢ Easy to install, easy to configure
➢ If one link fails the network can still function
➢ It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur
• Disadvantages of a Star topology
➢ Everything depends on the hub
➢ Requires more cable than a linear bus .
➢ More expensive than linear bus topology due to the value of the
connecting devices (network switches)
3.A Tree topology/HYBRID
 ➢ A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies.
➢ It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a
linear bus backbone cable
➢ Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and
enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of Tree Topology :
1. This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
2. As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain,
this topology provides high scalability.
3. Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus,
failing of one segment does not affect the rest of the network.
4. Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification
can be done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology :
1. As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network
depends heavily on the bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
2. Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are
high. Also, configuration is difficult in comparison to that in other
topologies.
3. Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on
the capacity of the central bus and on the cable type.
XI Types of network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) – communication between two three mobile
devices or PC for personal purpose.
 2. Local Area Network (LAN) – limited area (within building)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – within city
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) – within multiple city/state/ countrie
[Link] Area Network(PAN)
1. Spread in the proximity of an individual(approximate range of 10 metres)
2. Set up using guided media(USB cable) or unguided media (Bluetooth,
Infrared).
3. Owned, controlled, and managed by a single person.
4. a mobile phone connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN
while two smartphones communicating with each other through
Bluetooth technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.
 Examples:
• A network of devices such as computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player,
Camera etc.
• Transferring songs from one cell phone to another is a PAN of two
phones.
• Transferring files from a PC to an MP3 playeris a PAN between the
two
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
1. It is one of the most common one of the simplest types of network.
2. It is designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings.(1 Km)
3. Any of different types of topologies can be used to design LAN like Star,
Bus, Tree etc.
Characteristics of LAN
➢ private networks means no need of regulatory control. • Operate at
relatively high speed.
➢ Connects computers in a single building, block or campus.
➢ Data transfer 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit
Ethernet), where Mbps stands for Megabits per second
Advantages of LAN
➢ Resource Sharing
➢ Software Applications Sharing
➢ Easy and Cheap Communication
 ➢ Centralized Data
➢ Data Security
➢ Internet Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
➢ High Setup Cost
➢ Privacy Violations
➢ Data Security Threat
➢ LAN Maintenance Job
➢ Covers Limited Area
Examples: A networked office building, school or home.
Sometimes one building can contain a few small LANs (Like some schools have
independent LANs in each computer lab.).
[Link] Area Network(MAN)
1. Man Spread within a city
2. Cover an area of a few kilometres to a few hundred kilometres radius.
3. Set up using all types of all guided and unguided media.
4. Owned and operated by a government body or a large corporation.
5. Examples: Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet services
are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be extended up to 30-40
km.A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc. within a
city.
6. A MAN is usually formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and
individual computers.
7. Wide Area Network (WAN)
8. Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers across
longer physical distances.
9. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers,
smartphones and millions of LANs from different continents.
10. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by
any single person or owner.
Characteristics of WAN
➢ Covers large distances(states, countries, continents).
➢ Communication medium like satellite, public telephone networks etc and
routers are used establish connection.
➢ Examples: A network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices,
International Organizations' Offices etc., spread over a country,
continent, or covering many continents.
Advantages of WAN
➢ Long distance business can connect on the one network.
➢ Shares software and resources
➢ Messages can be sent very quickly to wide range of nodes
➢ Hardware devices can be shared.
Disadvantages of WAN
➢ Need a good firewall to restrict unauthorized access
➢ Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated.
➢ Maintaining a network is a full-time job
➢ Security is a major issue when many different people have the ability to
use information