Institute of Language Teaching

[Link]. (English) College, RAJKOT

(PE-1)
Psychology of Learner

Unit: 4 Mental Health and Adjustment

4.1. Mental Health:

Concept, Factors affecting Mental Health, Concept of Mental
Hygiene
4.2. Adjustment:
Concept, Characteristics well-adjusted person, Concept of
Maladjustment, Symptoms of Maladjustment, Reasons of
Maladjustment, and its Educational Implications.
4.3. Defence Mechanisms:
Types and Implications, Concept of Defence Mechanisms
• Projection • Reversal-Reaction Formation
• Repression • Isolation
• Fixation and Regression • Rationalization
• Introjection • Sublimation
• Undoing/Repentance • Compensation
• Turning upon the self • Sympathism
4.4. Group Dynamics:
Concept of Group Dynamics, Sociometry technique, Implications
 4.1 Mental Health: Concept, Factors affecting Mental
Health, Concept of Mental Hygiene

4.1.1 Concept of Mental Health

Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-
being. It affects how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we
handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is important at
every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.
Over the course of your life, if you experience mental health problems, your
thinking, mood, and behaviour could be affected. Many factors contribute to
mental health problems, including:
▪ Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry
▪ Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
▪ Family history of mental health problems
Mental health problems are common, but help is available. People with
mental health problems can get better and many recovers completely.
According to the WHO (World Health Organization), mental health is:
"... a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities,
can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully,
and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”
The WHO stresses that mental health "is not just the absence of mental
disorder."

WHO declared 2001 the Year of Mental Health and that year’s World
Health Day (10th October is observed as World Mental Health Day),
was a resounding success. Over 150 countries organized important
activities, including major speeches by political leaders and the
adoption of new mental health legislation and programmes.
At the 2002 World Health Assembly, over 130 Ministers responded
positively with a clear and unequivocal message: mental health,
neglected for too long, is crucial to the overall wellbeing of individuals,
societies and countries, and must be universally regarded in a new
light.
“Mental health is a state of successful performance of mental function, resulting
in productive activities, fulfilling relationships with people and the ability to
change and dope with adversity.” – Surgeon General USA, (1999)
Basically, mental health means having the capacity to be able to
successfully adapt to the challenges that life creates for people. These
challenges are both positive and negative. In order to adapt to them our brains
need to apply all of their capacities of; emotions, cognition/thinking, signaling
functions and behaviors. Our brains learn how to apply these capacities over
time and as we grow and develop, we are able to take on more and more
challenges and become successful in dealing with them. This is because we
have faced these challenges and learned to deal with them.
Sometimes people forget that negative emotions are a part of good mental
health. Crying, feeling sad, getting annoyed or angry, etc. are all normal
responses to life challenges. So are negative thoughts such as: “this is too hard
for me” or “I am not a good person” or “people don’t like me”. So are negative
behaviors, such as yelling at somebody or avoiding a situation that makes us
feel stressed. It does not mean that we don’t have good mental health just
because we feel stressed. Indeed, being able to identify stress and learn how to
successfully overcome it in a way that solves the problem causing it is
fundamental to having good mental health.
For example: feeling stressed about writing an examination could lead to a
negative behaviour – such as going out to party with friends to drink and
“forget” about the stress. Or it could lead to a neutral behaviour – such as going
for a run or meditating to “release” the stress but not studying for the exam. But if
that is your entire adaptive response you likely will not do well on your exam.
The important coping strategy that your stress response should be eliciting from
you here is to study or to get help from your instructor to assist you in
understanding something that you may not know very well. If you add this
coping strategy to your stress “releasing” activity you will be much more likely
to succeed and that is a sign of good mental health.
4.1.2 Positive Mental Health
In “Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health” (1958), Jahoda identified the six
approaches to the definition of positive mental health:
1. Positive view of the self
2. Capability for Growth and Development
3. Autonomy and independence
4. Accurate perception of reality
5. Positive friendships and relationships
6. Environmental Mastery

4.1.3 Concept of Mental Hygiene

Mental hygiene is a branch of science which deals with the mental health of the
individuals.
Following definitions provide a broad outlook of mental hygiene,
(a) American psychiatric association (1991)– “Mental hygiene consists of
measures to reduce the incidence of mental illness through prevention and
early treatment and to promote mental health”.
(b) According to Boring E.G, the aim of mental hygiene is to “aid people to
achieve more satisfying and more productive life through the prevention
of anxieties and maladjustments”.
(c) Hadfield considers mental hygiene as “concerned with the maintenance of
mental health and the prevention of mental disorder”.
(d) According to Klein D. B., mental hygiene as its name suggests, “Is
concerned with the realization and maintenance of the mind’s health and
efficiency”.
Mental hygiene is the process of working to maintain mental health. It involves
such things as psychotherapy, medication, and even less clinical actions such as
learning to meditate or reaching out for family support.
Mental health is the goal we are trying to achieve; mental hygiene is the means
by which we seek that goal.
4.1.4 What Educators Should Know…
Educators are often the first to notice mental health problems. Here are some
ways you can help students and their families.
You should know…
▪ The warning signs for mental health problems.
▪ Whom to turn to, such as the principal, school nurse, school psychiatrist
or psychologist, or school social worker, if you have questions or
concerns about a student's behavior.
▪ H ow to access crisis support and other mental health services.
Consult with a school counselor, nurse, or administrator and the student's
parents if you observe one or more of the following behaviors:
▪ Feeling incredibly sad or withdrawn for more than two weeks
▪ Seriously trying to harm oneself, or making plans to do so
▪ Sudden overwhelming fear for no reason, sometimes with a racing heart
or fast breathing
▪ Involvement in many fights or desire to badly hurt others
▪ Severe out-of-control behaviour that can hurt oneself or others
▪ Not eating, throwing up, or using laxatives to make oneself lose weight
▪ Intense worries or fears that get in the way of daily activities
▪ Repeated use of drugs or alcohol
▪ Extreme difficulty concentrating or staying still that puts the student in
physical danger or causes problems in the classroom
▪ Severe mood swings that cause problems in relationships
▪ Drastic changes in the student's behaviour or personality

4.1.5 Factors Affecting Mental Health

Some of the factors that affect the mental health of youth are as follows:
1. Self-esteem
This is the value we place on ourselves, our positive self-image and sense of
self-worth. People with high self-esteem generally have a positive outlook
and are satisfied with themselves most of the time.
2. Feeling loved
Children who feel loved, trusted and accepted by their parents and others are
far more likely to have good self-esteem. They are also more likely to feel
 comfortable, safe and secure, and are better able to communicate and
develop positive relationships with others.
3. Confidence
Youth should be encouraged to discover their own unique qualities and have
the confidence to face challenges and take risks. Young people who are
brought up to have confidence in themselves are more likely to have a
positive attitude, and to lead happy and productive lives.
4. Family breakup or loss
Separation or divorce or the loss of a parent or sibling is extremely painful.
Finding ways to cope and adjust to the changes wrought by these events is
critical for everyone, but particularly for youth. How grief is handled can
affect young people negatively for years to come. If children are having
difficulty coping, professional help is recommended.
5. Difficult behaviour
When people are unhappy, they either internalize their unhappiness or act
out. The latter usually appears as bad or difficult behaviour, such as using
abusive language, being aggressive or violent, damaging property, stealing,
lying, refusing to comply with requests or expectations at school or home, or
displaying other inappropriate actions. If such behaviour is serious and
persistent, the young person and his or her family might require professional
help.
6. Physical ill health
Diseases, injuries, and other physical problems often contribute to poor
mental health and sometimes mental illness. Some physical causes (such as
birth trauma, brain injury or drug abuse) can directly affect brain chemistry
and contribute to mental illness. More commonly, poor physical health can
affect self-esteem and people’s ability to meet their goals, which leads to
unhappiness or even depression. In such cases, receiving the best possible
treatment for both the physical problem and the resulting psychological
consequences is key to optimal recovery to good mental health.
7. Abuse
The mental health of abused children is at great risk. Abused children are
more likely to experience mental disorders or mental illness during childhood
and into adulthood.
Abuse may be physical, sexual, psychological, or verbal. It may not always
be evident or easily recognized. Regardless of the form it takes, abuse cannot
be tolerated. Children need to be protected from abuse and helped to
overcome its negative effects. Abuse can cause feelings of low self-esteem,
 lack of self-confidence, depression, isolation, and anger - all feelings that
impair a child’s chance to lead a happy life.
Trust in others and feelings of being safe and cared for are key components
to recovery from abuse. Few children are able to recover on their own.
Support is critical, and professional counselling is sometimes required. If
abuse is discovered early, the chances of a child returning to a healthy state
of mind and avoiding serious mental disorders are greatly enhanced.

4.1.6 Support Strategies

You can support the mental health of all students in your classroom and
school, not just individual students who may exhibit behavioral issues.
Consider the following actions:
▪ Educate staff, parents, and students on symptoms of and help for
mental health problems
▪ Promote social and emotional competency and build resilience
▪ Help ensure a positive, safe school environment
▪ Teach and reinforce positive behaviors and decision-making
▪ Encourage helping others
▪ Encourage good physical health
▪ Help ensure access to school-based mental health supports
▪ Be supportive and understanding.
▪ Spend time with the students. Listen to them.
 4.2 Adjustment: Concept, Characteristics well-adjusted person,
Concept of Maladjustment, Symptoms of Maladjustment,
Reasons of Maladjustment, and its Educational Implications.

4.2.1 Concept of Adjustment

The concept of adjustment is originated from the biological term
'adaptation'. Biologists used the term 'adaptation' strictly for the physical
demands of the environment, but psychologists use the term 'adjustment' for
varying conditions of social or inter-personal relations in the society.
The dictionary definition of adjustment is “to harmonize or compose;
adapt oneself or get used to changed circumstances”. In that sense adjustment is
process through which we adapt ourselves as per the environmental conditions.
These conditions can be physical, like temperature, or they can be social like
societal norms and traditions. Dictionary of Education defines adjustment as
―adjustment as the process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour
suitable to environment or to change in the environment.
Adjustment is a process of seeking a balance between internal and
external demands. It also signifies our adaptability to new situations and
demands. Adjustment means the reaction to the demands and pressures of social
environment imposed upon the individual. The demand to which the individual
has to react may be external or internal. Psychologists have viewed 'adjustment'
from two important perspectives. For one, adjustment as an achievement and for
another, adjustment as a process. The first point of view emphasizes the quality
or efficiency of adjustment and the second lays emphasis on the process by
which an individual adjusts to his external environment.
Adjustment as achievement: Adjustment as achievement means how
efficiently an individual can perform his duties under different circumstances. If
we perceive adjustment as achievement, we have to set criteria to judge the
quality of adjustment. No universal criteria can be set for all times to come
because criteria involve value judgements which differ from culture to culture
and from generation to generation within the same culture. Four criteria have
been evolved by psychologists to judge the adequacy of adjustment. They are,
• Physical health
• Psychological comfort
• Work efficiency, and
• Social acceptance.
Adjustment as process: Adjustment as a process is important for teachers.
Students' adjustment largely depends on their interaction with the external
environment in which they live. They always try to adjust to it. Piaget has studied
the adjustive process from different angles. He uses the term assimilation and
accommodation to represent the alternation of oneself or environment as a
means of adjustment. A person who carries his values and standards of conduct
without any change and maintains these despite major changes in the social
climate is called assimilator. The person who takes his standards from his social
context and changes his beliefs in accordance with the altered values of the
society is called accommodator. To adjust successfully in society a person has to
resort to both the devices i.e. assimilation and accommodation.
The problem arises when socio-psychological needs are not fulfilled, and it
often results in maladjusted behaviour. However, when these needs are
completely satisfied, a temporary state of equilibrium is established in the
organism and the activity towards that goal ceases.
Thus, healthy adjustment is a process whereby an individual meets his
biological, psychological, and social needs successfully and establishes a balance
between his inner needs and external demands of the society through
appropriate behavioral responses.

Definitions of Adjustment
According to Crow & Crow, - “an individual adjustment is adequate, wholesome
or healthful to the extent that he has established harmonious relationship
between himself and the conditions, situations and persons who comprise his
physical and social environment.”
According to Shaffer, “adjustment is the process by which a living organism
maintains a balance between needs and the circumstances that influence the
satisfaction of these needs.”
Gates, A. & Jersild, A. “states that adjustment is a continual process by which a
person varies his behaviour to produce a more harmonious relationship between
himself and his environment.”
“Adjustment is an in-build protective system designed to help individual cope
with the problems of normal and everyday life.” - Weitan, Dunn & Hammer
(2015)
“Adjustment is the process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour suitable
to the environment.”- C.V. Good (1966)
“Adjustment is the outcome of individuals’ efforts to deal with the daily
demands and to maintain a harmonious relationship with the environment.”
Coleman (1986)
A close examination of the definitions draws out certain characteristics of
adjustment:
• Adjustment enables to strike a balance between our needs and our
capacity to meet these needs.
• Adjustment leads to change in our thinking and change in the way of
life with the regards to the demands of the situation
• Adjustment gives us the ability and strength to bring desirable changes
in the state of our environment.
• Adjustment is both physiological as well as psychological.
• Adjustment brings us happiness and contentment.
In simple words, adjustment is to be understood as a means to be ‘fit to make
correspondent changes, to adopt or to accommodate in the changing condition,
circumstances to get satisfaction in life otherwise stress will come.

4.2.2 Characteristics of well-adjusted Person

• Aware of his own strength and weakness
• Respecting himself and others
• An adequate level of aspiration, neither too high nor too low.
• Satisfaction of basic needs
• Absence of critical (fault finding) attitude
• Flexibility in behaviour
• The capacity to deal with adverse circumstances
• A realistic perception of the world
 • He/she has rational and positive attitude.
• Aware of his environment and feels comfortable in it.
• A balanced philosophy of life.

4.2.3 Concept of Maladjustment

Maladjustment refers to disharmony between the person and his environment.
Contrary to adjustment, maladjustment represents a condition or state in which
one feels that one’s needs are not fulfilled, and he has been a failure in
establishing harmony with his self and the environment.
Maladjustment is the result of insufficient responses to demands that may occur
throughout the life span and result in impaired functioning, distress, and/or poor
health.
Maladjustment is the condition of being unable to adapt properly to your
environment with resulting emotional instability. It can be considered as a poor
or faulty adjustment. It is the inability to adjust oneself to the needs of others, or
to the stresses of normal life.

4.2.4 Symptoms of a Maladjustment:

As a teacher, you might have noticed a few such maladjusted students in your
classroom too. At times, you might have even thought of seriously the reasons
for their maladjusted behaviour. There are numerous reasons in and out of the
school which create frustration, that lead to maladjustment. Let us analyse the
symptoms one by one. If a student is:
1. Withdrawn and timid: Frequent withdrawals from difficult situations
may make individual timid and weak in facing real life situations.
2. Shy and self-conscious: Shyness is usually associated with the self-
consciousness, concern with the impression one gives to other people, and
concern with their negative evaluation. A shy individual has low self-esteem and
tends to anticipate adversities, thus often keeping silent and avoiding eye
contact.
3. Fearful: Fear is a strong emotion involving perception of danger,
unpleasant agitation and often a desire to hide from meeting students of higher
classes, being alone in a room, and fear of dogs, strange noises, the dark, etc.
4. Anxious: Anxiety is a personality trait. It results from conflict, which is
an inevitable part of life. Anxiety describes the individual's level of
emotionality. We see many students who are tense and worried (highly anxious)
and those who are cool (hardly anxious). Since anxiety is an inferred emotional
state of an individual, it cannot be directly observed. It can be measured through
psychological tests/techniques.
5. Delusions: Delusion is an irrational and obstinate belief that the individual
actively defends, e.g., a child does not work hard for the final examination and
thinks that it is the God only who can get him through the examination and he
fails. This shows the delusion in him which makes him maladjusted.
6. Extremely aggressive: Aggressive students show enterprising or energetic
behaviour or tendency to be dominating in the class or the school. Sometimes an
individual fails to show the tendency of dominating in a social situation and
hurts herself instead e.g. a child beats her doll, kicks the dog, or other objects.
7. Tension: When a person does not feel a kind of inner freedom, the strain
which results from muscular contradiction and through which muscles, tendons,
etc., are stretched under a threatening situation.
8. High aspirations: A person has high hopes and aspirations for his future
life. When the hopes are not achieved, he becomes unrealistic in life.
9. Feeling of inferiority: A feeling of inferiority, arising from the sense of
imperfection and incompletion in a particular sphere of life, which motivates the
individual to strive for a higher level of development and as such, are the cause
of all improvement in life situations. Each time a new level of achievement is
reached, inferiority feelings reappear, continuing to stimulate upward
movement. If inferiority feelings become exaggerated by adverse conditions at
home, physical or mental disorders on inferiority complex may develop which
makes an individual maladjusted.
10. Emotionally disturbed: If the internal and external adjustment of a child
is not achieved, he becomes emotional e.g., weeping, quarreling, nail biting,
thumb sucking, etc. and becomes maladjusted.
11. Isolated: Maladjusted children suffer from a feeling of isolation. This
feeling does not allow them to mix and interact with other members of class,
school, family or society. In families where parents are extremely busy and
neglect their children, the children develop a feeling of isolation or dejection.
This makes them maladjusted.
12. Sensitivity: Maladjusted children are very sensitive. They get hurt easily
e.g., on being teased by teachers in the classroom or parents in the family,
sarcastic remarks by peers, unwelcome advice by others, etc.
13. Temper-tantrums: When there is a bad-tampered out-burst, this is known
as a temper tantrum e.g., if a child does not get fair treatment, sympathy,
cooperation and freedom of action within reasonable limits, he feels
maladjusted.

4.2.5 Reasons of maladjustments:

The causes of one’s maladjustment to his self and the environment may be both
of personal as well as environmental Following are the causes of maladjustment:
1. Unhealthy home environment: It is because of separated family,
divorced family, stepmother or stepfather, drunkard or addicted parents, single
parenting and low moral and social standard of family.
2. Heredity causes: One may feel inferior because of inherit defective
mental set up, physiological structure, colour of the skin (dark) which leads to
maladjustment.
3. Poverty: when poor children meet rich children in the school, they
sometimes develop jealousy, worry and inferiority complex which lead to
emotional disturbance.
4. Environment causes: The forces of environment begin to play their role
right from the conception of the child in the womb of the mother in the form of
defective nourishment available to him. Uncongenial physical environment,
adverse physical environment. Leads to maladjustment.
5. Faulty method of teaching: Faulty method of teaching do not motivate
students. Lesson become dull and drudgery. Student begin to hate every process
of education. It creates emotional tension which lead to mental illness.
6. Strict Discipline: Some traditional schools impose strict discipline; such
schools are just like jails and the teachers, jailors. Those students are always
suffering from fear and worry.
7. Lack of equipment (facility): In some schools, there is lack of furniture
and proper equipment. Overcrowded classes and poor facilities lead to
frustration and mental tension.
8. Lack of guidance and counselling: Mastery over content and subject
matter only without caring for the interest of students. No guidance is provided
for various areas at different levels. Students became confused, frustrated, and
become maladjusted.
9. Lack of recreational facilities: children who do not get facilities after
classroom in the forms of play, library, debates, discussion, puzzles etc. may
hinder adjustment.
10. Mass media: children are exposed to mass media, explosion of
knowledge, adult issues now a days. It the child witness films which depict low
sexuality and violence. It may lead to maladjustment.
11. Social laws and bindings: The social laws and legal binding are the most
common source of frustrations in one’s life. Similarly, restrictions imposed by
parents, teachers, ethical and other groups are common sources of
maladjustment.
12. Bad company / neighborhood: Neighborhood is an important
conditioner of child’s behaviour. Many of our youngsters develop delinquencies
because such patterns of behaviour are available in their neighborhood patterns
like lying, stealing, obscene talk.

4.2.6 Preventive measures of Maladjustment (Educational Implications)

Following are the measures which prevent maladjustment:
1. Proper encouragement: Parents and teachers should speak daily with the
child about his daily activities. So, the child can begin to learn the principles of
socialization.
2. Proper appreciation: Parents and teachers should directly praise the child
for good things he has done.
3. Delegating responsibility: Parents and teachers should assign some
responsibility to the child. This responsibility should evolve tasks which child
perceives as real and important.
4. Provision of entertainment: Provide entertainment facilities like parks,
sports clubs, amusement places, theatres, museum to children. We should
encourage the child to engage in play with his peers.
5. Testing: Refer the child for special education testing in some instances
maladjusted children and eligible for special education services.
6. Pattern of relaxation: The teacher should set a pattern of calmness,
yoga, meditation, stress management courses plays very important roles in
preventing maladjustment.
7. Informing progress: Teacher should inform the child of the progress
he is making.
8. Timely help: Teacher should help the child when he needs it and not
only when he asks for it. If the teacher is wise enough to know when the child
requires help, he may be able to help him avoid many traumatic failure
experiences.
9. Moral Education: School should provide value education through
various methods. Self-confidence, co-operation, caring, and sharing are the
values can be inculcated through cocurricular programmes.
10. Guidance and counselling: If a teacher works as guide and counsellor
for parents and children, many of the negative situations can be turned into
positive one which is benefited to students.

The role of School, teacher in student adjustment

• Provide a classroom environment where the children feel free to
express themselves
• Develop in youngsters a sense self-respect and self-esteem by complemen
• Accept the individual differences of students.
• Develops comprehensive cumulative records by collecting
information through classroom sitting.
• Practices good mental health.
• Participate and contributes to the effectiveness of case conferences.
• Teacher himself should adopt democratic and respective behaviour.
 4.3 Defense Mechanisms: Types and implications

1. Concept of Defense Mechanism:

Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego-defenses which he refers to

throughout his written works. His daughter Anna developed these ideas and
elaborated on them, adding ten of her own. Many psychoanalysts have also
added further types of ego defenses.

It is a way to behave or think to protect or “defend” ourselves from anxieties.

How we distance ourselves from a full awareness of unpleasant thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors.

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used

to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or
feelings.

Defense mechanisms, also known as face-saving devices, are used as a stop-

gap arrangement, and are coping techniques that are used by humans in order
to cope and deal with anything that is unpleasant, unacceptable, and
threatening.

They are known as face-saving devices, because they are literally used to 'save
our face' in the wake of any threatening situation and news, as the reality is too
difficult to accept and deal within its entire intensity.

• We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or

guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our superego becomes
too demanding.

• Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off

unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the
individual.

Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of
proportion (i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety states,
phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.

Defense mechanisms are unconscious mechanisms aimed at reducing anxiety

that arises from three different scenarios:
• When the id impulses are in conflict with each other;

• When the id impulses conflict with superego values and beliefs;

• When an external threat is posed to the ego.

2. Implications:

1) Defense mechanism enables a person to resolve conflict. They are

essential to the maintenance of normal equilibrium.
2) Difficulties only occur if the defense mechanisms are inadequate to deal
with anxiety.
3) Many defense mechanisms are a means of compromising with forbidden
desire, feeling of guilt etc.
4) When defense mechanisms are used moderately, they are harmless and
help to conflict and frustration easily and protect the ego.
5) They also help to relieve tension and make the person feel comfortable.
6) Excessive and persistent use of this defence mechanism is harmful.
7) They do not resolve the problem but only with relieve the related anxiety.
8) Too much dependence makes us incapable of facing problems.

3. Types of Defence Mechanisms:

Psychologists have classified different defense mechanisms in a number
of ways. Some of them put defence mechanisms in five or six main categories
while others extend them up to 17-18 categories. Defence mechanisms are
learned and designed to tackle self-devaluation, anxiety and hurt and operate
automatically at habitual levels. They typically involve measures of self-
deception and distortion. Defence mechanisms are usually exercised in
combination instead of singly and quite often they are combined with task-
oriented behaviour. To a great extent they are necessary to soften failure,
alleviate anxiety and hurt and protect feelings of significance adequacy and
worth. Normally, they are adjustive reactions but sometimes they seriously
interfere with the effective resolution of stress. Defence mechanisms may
feature in a negative or a positive form.

The following is a list of the main types of defence mechanisms:

1) Projection 10) Intellectualization (Isolation)
2) Reaction formation 11) Undoing
3) Regression 12) Identification
4) Repression 13) Introjections
5) Rationalization 14) Compensation
6) Fantasy 15) Acting Out
7) Emotional Insulation 16) Selective forgetting
8) Displacement 17) Negativism
9) Denial of reality 18) Sublimation
4.4 Study of Defense Mechanisms: Identification, Compensation,
Rationalization, Daydreaming and Sublimation

[Link]

When a person justifies his maladaptive behaviour by false logic or ascribes

it to noble motives which do not inspire it, it is called rationalization...
Rationalization mechanism has two main defective values i.e.
1 It helps to justify particular specific behaviour and
2 Contributes to soften disappointment related with unattained goals.

While using rationalization mechanism one thinks logically and offers

socially approved reasons in order to justify one's behaviour. Though one
knows that his action is immoral and unreasonable, he has an insuperable urge
to rationalize it to prove to himself and to others that his action is reasonable,
commonly accepted, and full of conventional morality. One may use
rationalization to often his disappointment softens in case of the unfulfillment
of his usually unacceptable desires. A popular example of rationalization is the
"sour grapes" reaction. The fox who was unable to reach a cluster of delicious
grapes, decided that he did not want them after all because they were probably
sour. Similarly, many times students justify their below standard performance
on the ground that they have disassociated themselves from the competitive rat
race of society. Sometimes, failure to achieve a particular goal will end up in
describing the goal itself as worthless. It is difficult to say where an objective
consideration or reality ends and rationalization begins. The following forms
of behaviour indicate rationalization:

a) Search for reasons to justify behaviour,

b) Inability to recognize inconsistencies or contradictions and
c) To become upset if one's reasoning is not accepted or questioned.
Halt for a short while and check your familiarity with the contents
you have gone through so far.
[Link]

When a person feels inferior or in adequate because of some real or

imagined personal short-coming or weakness or any setback and failure in life,
he reacts in his defence through compensation, such a reaction may take any
form and may be constructive task oriented or deliberate. Overcoming a
physical handicap through sustained effort and exercise is an example of
compensation. The compensatory reaction or behaviour may be a deciding
factor for success in life. Mostly compensatory behaviour is indirect. People
make an effort to draw attention away from a defect or a weakness. Often a
physically unattractive person may develop a pleasing personality or a
physically weak person may become good scholar instead of becoming an
athlete. All compensatory reactions are not desirable. Sometimes frustrated and
neglected persons develop bad eating habits. Insecure children behave in such
a way that they may get more attention from parents or family members.
Sometimes people criticize others to bring them down to their own level. In
extreme situations a person may involve him in any antisocial behaviour or
develop an eccentricity unconsciously make in order to attention.

3. DAYDREAMING

Daydreaming is a defense mechanism where individuals escape from reality by

creating an imaginary world or fantasizing about situations to avoid stress,
anxiety, or conflicts. It's a form of coping that provides temporary relief from
unpleasant emotions or situations.

Examples

1) Avoiding Academic Stress: A student struggling with a challenging

subject may daydream about becoming a successful professional in the
future instead of focusing on their current difficulties.

2) Handling Social Anxiety: A person who feels out of place at a social

event might retreat into their mind, imagining themselves as the life of the
party in a more comfortable, fictional scenario.
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In case of failure to get satisfaction directly for any emotion one may make an
effort to get satisfaction through socially accepted means. This process is known
as sublimation. Due to social factors and other inhibitions, direct and easy sexual
satisfaction is not possible and it may be suppressed. If suppressed feelings are
not either connected or ventilated, they may cause mental disorders. The
provision of socially accepted means of ventilation or channelization for
suppressed feelings is sublimation. A short- t e m p e r e d person may
channelize his unwanted emotions of temperament through engaging himself in
heavy physical labour like cultivation, gardening, woodwork, etc. Sometimes
through the sublimation mechanism, a person reacts positively and channelizes
his suppressed feelings in to work of art, literature or science etc. Sublimation is
a self-generated process.

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Identification may operate as a defence mechanism by increasing feelings of

worth and protecting the individual against self-devaluation. The process takes
shape during childhood when a child identifies his elders as models. The growing
child becomes aware of how he is being evaluated by others; depend on his
family and other members of the primary group. When a child reaches
adolescence or adulthood his identification capability enhances and covers a wide
range of persons and groups. While on the one hand society evaluates the
individual in the light of his group membership, on the other hand, the individual
also evaluates himself in the same light. Often employees identify with the power
and prestige of the company in which they are employed and students with the
college they attend. By doing so, to some extent, they fulfil their desire of being a
party to the power and prestige of the group they belong to. Identification is
significant for those who feel basically inferior and need support.