Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step
process to obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to perform
queries.
Types of Relational operation
1. Select Operation:
o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
o It is denoted by sigma (σ).
Notation: σ p(r)
Where:
σ is used for selection prediction
r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like:
AND OR and NOT. These relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠,
≥, <, >, ≤.
For example: LOAN Relation
BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Downtown L-17 1000
Redwood L-23 2000
Perryride L-15 1500
Downtown L-14 1500
Mianus L-13 500
Roundhill L-11 900
Perryride L-16 1300
Input:
σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)
Output:
BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Perryride L-15 1500
Perryride L-16 1300
2. Project Operation:
o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear
in the result. Rest of the attributes are eliminated from the table.
o It is denoted by ∏.
Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)
Where
A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.
Example: CUSTOMER RELATION
NAME STREET CITY
Jones Main Harrison
Smith North Rye
Hays Main Harrison
Curry North Rye
Johnson Alma Brooklyn
Brooks Senator Brooklyn
Input:
∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)
Output:
NAME CITY
Jones Harrison
Smith Rye
Hays Harrison
Curry Rye
Johnson Brooklyn
Brooks Brooklyn
3. Union Operation:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains all
the tuples that are either in R or S or both in R & S.
o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.
Notation: R ∪ S
A union operation must hold the following condition:
o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.
o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.
Example:
DEPOSITOR RELATION
CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO
Johnson A-101
Smith A-121
Mayes A-321
Turner A-176
Johnson A-273
Jones A-472
Lindsay A-284
BORROW RELATION
CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
Jones L-17
Smith L-23
Hayes L-15
Jackson L-14
Curry L-93
Smith L-11
Williams L-17
Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
Output:
CUSTOMER_NAME
Johnson
Smith
Hayes
Turner
Jones
Lindsay
Jackson
Curry
Williams
Mayes
4. Set Intersection:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation
contains all tuples that are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.
Notation: R ∩ S
Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table
Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
Output:
CUSTOMER_NAME
Smith
Jones
5. Set Difference:
o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation
contains all tuples that are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).
Notation: R - S
Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table
Input:
∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)
Output:
CUSTOMER_NAME
Jackson
Hayes
Willians
Curry
6. Cartesian product
o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with
each row in the other table. It is also known as a cross product.
o It is denoted by X.
Notation: E X D
Example:
EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT
1 Smith A
2 Harry C
3 John B
DEPARTMENT
DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
A Marketing
B Sales
C Legal
Input:
EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT
Output:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
1 Smith A A Marketing
1 Smith A B Sales
1 Smith A C Legal
2 Harry C A Marketing
2 Harry C B Sales
2 Harry C C Legal
3 John B A Marketing
3 John B B Sales
3 John B C Legal
7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted
by rho (ρ).
Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to
STUDENT1.
ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)
Set theoretical operations:
Refer Only 3 operations as from previous explanation
1. Union operation
2. Intersection operation
3. Set Difference operation
Join Operations:
if a given join condition is satisfied. It is denoted by ⋈.
A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if and only
Example:
EMPLOYEE
EMP_CODE EMP_NAME
101 Stephan
102 Jack
103 Harry
SALARY
EMP_CODE SALARY
101 50000
102 30000
103 25000
Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)
Result:
EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY
101 Stephan 50000
102 Jack 30000
103 Harry 25000
Types of Join operations:
1. Natural Join:
o A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are
equal on their common attribute names.
o It is denoted by ⋈.
Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table and SALARY table:
Input:
∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)
Output:
EMP_NAME SALARY
Stephan 50000
Jack 30000
Harry 25000
2. Outer Join:
The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation. It is used to
deal with missing information.
Example:
EMPLOYEE
EMP_NAME STREET CITY
Ram Civil line Mumbai
Shyam Park street Kolkata
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi
Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad
FACT_WORKERS
EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY
Ram Infosys 10000
Shyam Wipro 20000
Kuber HCL 30000
Hari TCS 50000
Input:
(EMPLOYEE ⋈ FACT_WORKERS)
Output:
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY
Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad TCS 50000
An outer join is basically of three types:
a. Left outer join
b. Right outer join
c. Full outer join
a. Left outer join:
o Left outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S
that are equal on their common attribute names.
o In the left outer join, tuples in R have no matching tuples in S.
o It is denoted by ⟕.
Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table
Input:
EMPLOYEE ⟕ FACT_WORKERS
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY
Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL
b. Right outer join:
o Right outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S
that are equal on their common attribute names.
o In right outer join, tuples in S have no matching tuples in R.
o It is denoted by ⟖.
Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS Relation
Input:
EMPLOYEE ⟖ FACT_WORKERS
Output:
EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY STREET CITY
Ram Infosys 10000 Civil line Mumbai
Shyam Wipro 20000 Park street Kolkata
Hari TCS 50000 Nehru street Hyderabad
Kuber HCL 30000 NULL NULL
Full outer join:
o Full outer join is like a left or right join except that it contains all rows
from both tables.
o In full outer join, tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S and
tuples in S that have no matching tuples in R in their common attribute
name.
o It is denoted by ⟗.
Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table
Input:
EMPLOYEE ⟗ FACT_WORKERS
Output:
EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY
Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000
Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000
Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000
Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL
Kuber NULL NULL HCL 30000
3. Equi join:
It is also known as an inner join. It is the most common join. It is based on
matched data as per the equality condition. The equi join uses the
comparison operator(=).
Example:
CUSTOMER RELATION
CLASS_ID NAME
1 John
2 Harry
3 Jackson
PRODUCT
PRODUCT_ID CITY
1 Delhi
2 Mumbai
3 Noida
Input:
CUSTOMER ⋈ PRODUCT
Output:
CLASS_ID NAME PRODUCT_ID CITY
1 John 1 Delhi
2 Harry 2 Mumbai
3 Harry 3 Noida
SQL Aggregate Functions
o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on
multiple rows of a single column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.
Types of SQL Aggregation Function
1. COUNT FUNCTION
o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database
table. It can work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the
rows in a specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
Syntax
COUNT(*)
or
COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Sample table:
PRODUCT_MAST
PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST
Item1 Com1 2 10 20
Item2 Com2 3 25 75
Item3 Com1 2 30 60
Item4 Com3 5 10 50
Item5 Com2 2 20 40
Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75
Item7 Com1 5 30 150
Item8 Com1 3 10 30
Item9 Com2 2 25 50
Item10 Com3 4 30 120
Example: COUNT()
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
10
Example: COUNT with WHERE
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
WHERE RATE>=20;
Output:
Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY
SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2
Example: COUNT() with HAVING
SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
GROUP BY COMPANY
HAVING COUNT(*)>2;
Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
2. SUM Function
Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works
on numeric fields only.
Syntax
SUM()
or
SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example: SUM()
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output: 670
670
Example: SUM() with WHERE
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
WHERE QTY>3;
Output:
320
Example: SUM() with GROUP BY
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
WHERE QTY>3
GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:
Com1 150
Com2 170
Example: SUM() with HAVING
SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
GROUP BY COMPANY
HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;
Output:
Com1 335
Com3 170
3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type.
AVG function returns the average of all non-Null values.
Syntax
AVG()
or
AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example:
SELECT AVG(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
67.00
4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This
function determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax
MAX()
or
MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example:
SELECT MAX(RATE)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30
5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This
function determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax
MIN()
or
MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example:
SELECT MIN(RATE)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
10
