Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology (NMIT),

Nitte (Deemed to be University), Bangalore,

Karnataka- 560064

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EEE103 - Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Unit- IV: Transistors

Notes Material
EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

UNIT – 4 Transistors
Construction and operation, BJT as a switch, Working and Characteristics of n-
channel Enhancement type MOSFET, Common source amplifier, DC load line
analysis, MOS Inverter.

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Introduction

In 1951, William Schockley invented the first junction transistor, a semiconductor
device that can amplify electronic signals such as radio and television signals. It is essential
ingredient of every electronic circuit; from the simplest amplifier or oscillator to the most
elaborate digital computer. Thus a proper understanding of transistor is very important.

Before transistor, the amplification was achieved by using vacuum tubes as an amplifier. Now-
a-days vacuum tubes are replaced by transistors because of following advantages of transistors.

✓ Low operating voltage

✓ Higher efficiency
✓ Small size and ruggedness

Transistor is a three terminal device base, emitter and collector, can be operated in three
configurations common base, common emitter and common collector. According to
configuration it can be used for voltage as well as current amplification.

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in which operation depends on the interaction of both
majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar.

The input signal of a small amplitude is applied at the base to get the magnified output signal
at the collector. This provides an amplification of the signal.

Transistor: A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has two PN-junctions. It is a device which
transforms current flow from a low resistance path to a high resistance path. This transfer of
current through resistance has given the name to the device transfer resistor or transistor. Since
this device is made up of two junction diodes. It is generally called junction transistor.

There are two types of junction transistors:

Uni-polar junction transistors (UJT) Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

Only majority carrier’s transport the current. Interaction of both the majority and minority
carriers transport the current.

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1. Unipolar junction transistor: The transistor in which current conduction is in only

one type of charge carriers, majority carriers.

2. Bipolar junction transistor: The current conduction in bipolar transistor is because

of both the types of charge carriers, holes and electrons. Hence this is called Bipolar junction
transistor, hereafter referred to as BJT.
Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): There are two basic types of bipolar
transistor construction
1. PNP Transistor
2. NPN Transistor

2. Basic Construction and Symbol of BJT:

When a transistor is formed by sandwiching a single p-region between two n-regions,
as shown in the Fig. 1 (a), it is an n-p-n type transistor. The p-n-p type transistor has a single
n-region between two p-regions, as shown in Fig. 1(b).

Fig. 1: Basic Construction of npn and pnp Transistor

The middle region of each transistor type is called the base of the transistor. This region is very
thin and lightly doped. The remaining two regions are called emitter and collector. The emitter
and collector are heavily doped. But the doping level in emitter is slightly greater than that of
collector and the collector region-area is slightly more than that of emitter. Typical base-emitter
voltages for both NPN and PNP transistors are 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium. Fig.
2 (a) and (b) shows the symbols of npn and pnp transistors.

Fig. 2: Symbol of npn and pnp Transistor

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

A transistor has two p-n junctions. One junction is between the emitter and the base, and is
called the emitter base junction, or simply the emitter junction JE. The other junction is between
the base and the collector, and is called collector-base junction, or simply collector junction JC.
Thus transistor is like two pn junction diodes connected back-to-back as shown in the Fig. 3
(a) and (b).

Fig. 3: Two- Diode Transistor Analogy

3. Transistor action:
3.1 Unbiased Transistor:
An unbiased transistor means a transistor with no external voltage (biasing) is applied.
Obviously, there will be no current flowing from any of the transistor leads. Since transistor is
like two pn junction diodes connected back to back, there are depletion regions at both the
junctions, emitter junction and collector junction, as shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Unbiased npn Transistor

During diffusion process, depletion region penetrates more deeply into the lightly doped side
in order to include an equal number of impurity atoms in the each side of the junction. As
shown in the Fig. 4, depletion region at emitter junction penetrates less in the heavily doped
emitter and extends more in the base region. Similarly, depletion region at collector junction
penetrates less in the heavily doped collector and extends more in the base region. As collector
is slightly less doped than the emitter, the depletion layer width at the collector junction is more
than the depletion layer width at the emitter junction.

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

3.2 Biased Transistor:

In order to operate transistor properly as an amplifier, it is necessary to correctly bias
the two pn junctions with external voltages. Depending upon external bias voltage polarities
used, the transistor works in one of the three regions, viz.
1) Active region 2) Cut-off region and 3) Saturation region.

To bias the transistor in its active region, the emitter base junction is forward biased,
while the collector-base junction in reverse-biased as shown in Fig. 5.
The Fig. 5 shows the circuit connections for active region for both npn and pnp
transistors.

Fig. 5: Transistor Forward- Reverse Bias

The externally applied bias voltages are VEE and Vcc as shown in Fig. 5, which bias the
transistor in its active region. The operation of the pnp is the same as for the npn except that
the roles of the electrons and holes, the bias voltage polarities, and the current directions are all
reversed. Note that in both cases the base-emitter (JE) junction is forward biased and the
collector- base (JC) is reverse biased.

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

4. Transistor Operation:
4.1 Working of NPN Transistor:

Fig. 6: NPN Transistor

➢ The base to emitter junction is forward biased by the d.c. source VEE. Thus, the depletion
region at this junction is reduced. The collector to base junction is reverse biased, increasing
depletion region at collector to base junction as shown in Fig. 6.
➢ The forward biased EB junction causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards
the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type
base, they tend to combine with holes in p-region (base).
➢ Due to light doping, very few of the electrons injected into the base from the emitter
recombine with holes to constitute base current, IB and the remaining large number of
electrons cross the base region and move through the collector region to the positive terminal
of the external d.c. source.
➢ This constitutes collector current IC. Thus the electron flow constitutes the dominant current
in an npn transistor.
➢ Since, the most of the electrons from emitter flow in the collector circuit and very few
combine with holes in the base. Thus, the collector current is larger than the base current.
The relationship between these current is given by,
IE = IC + IB

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

4.2 Working of PNP Transistor:

Fig. 7: PNP Transistor

The pnp transistor has its bias voltages 𝑉𝐸𝐸 and 𝑉𝐶𝐶 reversed from those in the npn
transistor. This is necessary to forward-bias the emitter-base junction and reverse-bias the
collector-base junction. The forward biased EB junction causes the holes in the p-type emitter
to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current 𝐼𝐸 . As these holes flow through
the n-type base, they tend to combine with electrons in n-region (base). As the base is very thin
and lightly doped, very few of the holes injected into the base from the emitter recombine with
electrons to constitute base current, 𝐼𝐵 , as shown in the Fig. 7.
5. Transistor as a Switch:
The transistor as a switch operates between two states namely saturation and cut off state.
The typical transistor circuit is shown in figure 8a . It consists of a transistor with collector load
resistance Rc. The input is given at base terminal and output is taken at collector terminal. When
the input signal is negative, the emitter base junction will reverse biased and the transistor never
comes to conduction state. The transistor will be in cut off and no current flows in the load
resistance Rc. As a result, there is no voltage drop across Rc.

Fig. 8a: Transistor as a Switch

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

Hence the output voltage will be supply voltage [Link]= Vcc. It is equal to open circuit voltage
since the transistor is in cut off. When the input voltage is positive, it forward biases the base-
emitter junction and the transistor will come to conduction state. Now maximum current will
be flowing from collector to emitter and all the Vcc is dropped across Rc. Thus the output
voltage will be zero. i.e. Vo=0. Hence the transistor is turned on and off depending upon
whether the input bias voltage is positive or negative. The connection diagram is shown in
figure 8b. Thus a transistor can act as a switch.

Fig. 8b: Transistor as a Switch connection diagram.

6. Relationship between α and β
As we know that, IE = IC + IB ------------------ (1)
Also, IB = IE - IC--------------------- (2)
common base current gain: The ratio of collector current to emitter current is called α.
This parameter is commonly known as common base gain.
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝑪 )
DC current gain α=
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝑬 )
𝑰𝑪
α= ---------- (3)
𝑰𝑬

The typical value of 𝛼 ranges from 0.9 to 0.99. For a good transistor, its value is closed to
one.
common emitter gain: The ratio of collector current to base current is β, This parameter
is commonly known as common emitter gain.
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝑪 )
DC current gain β=
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝑩 )
𝑰𝑪
β= ------------- (4)
𝑰𝑩

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

The typical range value of β is between 100 to 300.

Substitute equation (1) in (3) we get,
𝑰𝑪
α=
𝑰𝑪 +𝑰𝑩

Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. of above equation by IB, we get,

𝑰𝑪
[∵ 𝛃 =
𝑰𝑩
]
Similarly Substitute equation (2) in (4) we get,
𝑰𝑪
β=
𝑰𝑬 −𝑰𝑪

Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. of above equation by IE, we get,

𝑰
[∵ 𝛂 = 𝑰𝑪 ]
𝑬

𝜷 𝜶
The relationship of α and β parameters shall be 𝛂 = &β=
𝟏+𝜷 𝟏− 𝜶

7. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:

In this configuration input is applied between base and emitter, and output is taken from
collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both, input and output
circuits, and hence the name common emitter configuration. Common emitter configurations
for both npn and pnp transistors are shown in Fig. 9 (a) and 9 (b), respectively.

Fig. 9: Common Emitter Configurations

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

Fig. 10: Transistor current and voltages in Common Emitter Configurations

The Fig. 10 shows the input and output voltages and currents for the common-emitter
configuration. The input voltage in the CE configuration is the base-emitter voltage, and the
output voltage is the collector-emitter voltage. The input current is 𝐼𝐵 and the output current is
𝐼𝐶 .
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration Characteristics:
i. Input characteristics of transistor in CE mode:

Fig. 11: Input characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration

It is the curve between and input voltage VBE (base-emitter voltage) and input current IB (base
current) at constant collector-emitter voltage, VCE. The base current is taken along axis and

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

base emitter voltage VBE is taken along X-axis. Fig. 11 shows the input characteristics of a
typical transistor in common-emitter configuration.
From this characteristics we observe the following important points:
➢ The input resistance is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting
change in base current (ΔIB) at constant collector emitter voltage VCE. It is given by,

➢ As the input to a transistor in the CE configuration is between the base-to-emitter junction,

the CE input characteristics resembles a family of forward biased diode curves.
➢ After the cut-in voltage, the base current IB increases rapidly with small increase in base-
emitter voltage VBE. Thus the dynamic input resistance is small in CE configuration.
➢ For a fixed value of VBE, IB decreases as VCE is increased.
ii. Output characteristics of transistor in CE mode:

Fig. 12: Output characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration

➢ This characteristics shows the relation between the collector current IC and collector voltage
VCE, for various fixed values of IB. This characteristics is often called collector
characteristics. A typical family of output characteristics for an n-p-n transistor in CE
configuration is shown in Fig. 12.

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➢ From the output characteristics, it can see that change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE)
causes the little change in the collector current (ΔIC) for constant base current IB. Thus the
output dynamic resistance is high in CE configuration.

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration consists of three regions:

i. Active region, ii. Saturation region iii. Cut-off region.
i. Active Region:
➢ For the operation in the active region, the emitter-base junction (JE) is forward
biased while collector base junction (JC) is reverse biased.
➢ The collector current rise more sharply with increasing VCE in the linear region of
output characteristics of CE transistor.
For active region: VCE > VCE (sat)
ii. Saturation Region:
➢ In this region, the emitter-base junction (JE) and collector base junction (JC) both are
forward biased.
➢ The saturation value of VCE, designated VCE (sat), usually ranges between 0.1 V to 0.3
V.
𝐼
For saturation region: IB > 𝛽𝑐

iii. Cut-off Region:

➢ The region below IB = 0 is the cut-off region of operation for the transistor. In this
region, both the junctions of the transistor are reverse biased.
Punch Through Effect:
As VCB increases the width of the depletion region increases, which reduces the
electrical base width. This effect is called as early effect. The widened depletion region
penetrates into the base until it makes contact with the EB depletion region. This condition is
called as punch through or reach through effect. When this situation occurs device breaks
down because a large collector current flows through the device which destroys the transistor.
Therefore VCB should be kept below VCB(max) to avoid breakdown.

8. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

There are two types of MOSFETs
1. Enhancement type MOSFET
2. Depletion type MOSFET

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8.1Enhancement type MOSFET

Fig. 13 shows graphic symbols for an n and p channel enhancement type MOSFET.
The dashed line between drain and source represents the fact that a channel does not exist
between the two under no-bias conditions. It is the only difference between the symbols for
the depletion type and enhancement type.

Fig. 13: Symbols

8.2 Basic structure of n – channel Enhancement MOSFET:

Fig. 14b: Symbol of N-channel

Fig. 14a: Structure of n-channel E-MOSFET E-MOSFET
The Fig. 14a shows the basic construction of n channel enhancement type MOSFET. It having
two highly doped n regions are diffused into a lightly doped p type substrate. The source and
drain are taken out through metallic contacts to n-doped regions as shown in the Fig.14a. But
the channel between two n-regions is absent in the enhancement type MOSFET. The SiO₂ layer
is still present to isolate the gate metallic platform from the region between the drain and
source, but now it is simply separated from a section of the p-type material.

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

8.2Operation of n- channel Enhancement MOSFET:

Fig. 15: Channel formation in the n- channel Enhancement type MOSFET

By increasing the magnitude of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 in the positive direction, the concentration of electrons near
the 𝑆𝑖𝑂2surface increases. At a particular value of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 there is a measurable current flow
between drain and source. This value of 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is called threshold voltage denoted by 𝑉𝑇 . Thus it
can be say that in an enhancement type n-channel MOSFET, a positive gate voltage above a
threshold value induces a channel and hence the drain current by creating a thin layer of
negative charges in the substrate region adjacent to the SiO₂ layer, as shown in the Fig. 15. The
conductivity of the channel is enhanced by increasing the gate to source voltage and thus
pulling more electrons into the channel. For any voltage below the threshold value, there is no
channel. Since the channel does not exist with 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0 𝑉and “enhanced” by the application of
a positive gate to source voltage, this type of MOSFET is called an enhancement type
MOSFET.
If VGS is held constant and VDS is increased, the drain current reaches a saturation level ID.
At this condition, pinching off takes place and the channel becomes narrow towards the drain.

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

It is shown in Figure 16. The gate to drain voltage VDG will drop and hence gate will be less
positive with respect to drain. The reduction in Gate to Drain voltage causes a reduction in
channel width. Hence the channel will be reduced to a point of pinch-off and a saturation
condition will be established.

Fig. 16: Change in Channel and depletion region width with increase in VDS and
constant VGS
8.3Characteristics of n- channel Enhancement type MOSFET:
i. Transfer Characteristics:

Fig. 17: Transfer characteristic for n-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

Fig. 17 shows the transfer characteristic for n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. For an n-
channel enhancement type MOSFET it is now totally in the positive 𝑉𝐺𝑆 region and as we know

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EEE103- Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Unit- IV: Transistors

𝐼𝐷 does not flow until 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 𝑉𝑇 . For 𝑉𝐺𝑆 > 𝑉𝑇 the relationship between drain current and 𝑉𝐺𝑆 is
nonlinear and it is given as,
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑘(𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇 )2
k=constant = 0.278*10-3A/V2

ii. Drain Characteristics:

Fig. 18: Drain characteristic for n-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

Fig. 16 shows the drain characteristics of an n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. From the
above characteristic curve it can be say that as 𝑉𝐺𝑆 increases beyond the threshold level, the
density of free carriers (electrons) in the induced channel increases, increasing the drain
current. However, at some point of 𝑉𝐷𝑆 for constant VGS, the drain current reaches to the
saturation level.

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