GE8151-PROBLEM SOLVING AND PYTHON PROGRAMMING DEPT OF CSE, CKCET

UNIT III CONTROL FLOW, FUNCTIONS

Conditionals: Boolean values and operators, conditional (if), alternative (if-

else), chained conditional (if-elif-else); Iteration: state, while, for, break,
continue, pass; Fruitful functions: return values, parameters, scope: local and
global, composition, recursion; Strings: string slices, immutability, string
functions and methods, string module; Lists as arrays. Illustrative programs:
square root, gcd, exponentiation, sum the array of numbers, linear search, binary
search.

3.1 BOOLEAN VALUES

Any object can be tested for truth value, for use in an if or while condition or as operand of
the Boolean operations below. The following values are considered false:

 None
 False
 zero of any numeric type, for example, 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j.
 any empty sequence, for example, '', (), [].
 any empty mapping, for example, {}.

All other values are considered true — so objects of many types are always true.

Operations and built-in functions that have a Boolean result always return 0 or False for false
and 1 or True for true, unless otherwise stated.

3.2 OPERATORS

Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.

Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator.

Types of Operator

Python language supports the following types of operators.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison (Relational) Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators

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 Membership Operators
 Identity Operators

3.2.1 Arithmetic Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 30
Subtracts right hand operand from left hand a – b = -10
- Subtraction
operand.
* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 200
Divides left hand operand by right hand b/a=2
/ Division
operand
Divides left hand operand by right hand b%a=0
% Modulus
operand and returns remainder
Performs exponential (power) calculation on a**b =10 to the power 20
** Exponent
operators
Floor Division - The division of operands 9//2 = 4 and 9.0//2.0 = 4.0, -
where the result is the quotient in which the 11//3 = -4, -11.0//3 = -4.0
digits after the decimal point are removed. But
//
if one of the operands is negative, the result is
floored, i.e., rounded away from zero (towards
negative infinity):

[Link]

a = 21
b = 10
c=0
c=a+b
print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c

c=a-b
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c

c=a*b
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c

c=a/b
print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c=a%b
print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

a=2
b=3
c = a**b
print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

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a = 10
b=5
c = a//b
print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c
Output:
Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 11
Line 3 - Value of c is 210
Line 4 - Value of c is 2
Line 5 - Value of c is 1
Line 6 - Value of c is 8
Line 7 - Value of c is 2

3.2.2 Comparison Operators

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation among
them. They are also called Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

If the values of two operands are equal, then the (a == b) is not true.
==
condition becomes true.
If values of two operands are not equal, then condition
!=
becomes true.
If the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is not true.
>
right operand, then condition becomes true.
If the value of left operand is less than the value of (a < b) is true.
<
right operand, then condition becomes true.
If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to (a >= b) is not true.
>=
the value of right operand, then condition becomes true.
If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b) is true.
<=
value of right operand, then condition becomes true.

[Link]

a = 21
b = 10
c=0

if ( a == b ):
print "Line 1 - a is equal to b"
else:
print "Line 1 - a is not equal to b"

if ( a != b ):
print "Line 2 - a is not equal to b"
else:
print "Line 2 - a is equal to b"

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if ( a <> b ):
print "Line 3 - a is not equal to b"
else:
print "Line 3 - a is equal to b"

if ( a < b ):
print "Line 4 - a is less than b"
else:
print "Line 4 - a is not less than b"

if ( a > b ):
print "Line 5 - a is greater than b"
else:
print "Line 5 - a is not greater than b"

a = 5;
b = 20;
if ( a <= b ):
print "Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b"
else:
print "Line 6 - a is neither less than nor equal to b"

if ( b >= a ):
print "Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b"
else:
print "Line 7 - b is neither greater than nor equal to b"

Output

Line 1 - a is not equal to b

Line 2 - a is not equal to b
Line 3 - a is not equal to b
Line 4 - a is not less than b
Line 5 - a is greater than b
Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b

3.2.3 Assignment Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands c = a + b assigns value of a +
to left side operand b into c
+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand c += a is equivalent to c = c +
and assign the result to left operand a

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-= Subtract It subtracts right operand from the left c -= a is equivalent to c = c - a

AND operand and assign the result to left
operand
*= Multiply It multiplies right operand with the left c *= a is equivalent to c = c *
AND operand and assign the result to left a
operand
/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right c /= a is equivalent to c = c /
operand and assign the result to left ac /= a is equivalent to c = c /
operand a
%= Modulus It takes modulus using two operands and c %= a is equivalent to c = c
AND assign the result to left operand %a
**= Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation c **= a is equivalent to c = c
AND on operators and assign value to the left ** a
operand
//= Floor It performs floor division on operators c //= a is equivalent to c = c //
Division and assign value to the left operand a

[Link]
a = 21
b = 10
c=0

c=a+b
print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c

c += a
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c

c *= a
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c

c /= a
print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c =2
c %= a
print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

c **= a
print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

c //= a
print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c

Output:

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 52
Line 3 - Value of c is 1092

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Line 4 - Value of c is 52
Line 5 - Value of c is 2
Line 6 - Value of c is 2097152
Line 7 - Value of c is 99864

3.2.4 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a = 60; and b =
13; Now in binary format they will be as follows −

a = 0011 1100

b = 0000 1101

-----------------

a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101

a^b = 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python language

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the (a & b) (means 0000 1100)
result if it exists in both
operands
| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in (a | b) = 61 (means 0011 1101)
either operand.
^ Binary XOR It copies the bit if it is set in (a ^ b) = 49 (means 0011 0001)
one operand but not both.
~ Binary Ones It is unary and has the effect of (~a ) = -61 (means 1100 0011 in 2's
Complement 'flipping' bits. complement form due to a signed
binary number.
<< Binary Left The left operands value is a << 2 = 240 (means 1111 0000)
Shift moved left by the number of
bits specified by the right
operand.
>> Binary Right The left operands value is a >> 2 = 15 (means 0000 1111)
Shift moved right by the number of
bits specified by the right
operand.

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[Link]

a = 60 # 60 = 0011 1100
b = 13 # 13 = 0000 1101
c=0

c = a & b; # 12 = 0000 1100

print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c

c = a | b; # 61 = 0011 1101
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c

c = a ^ b; # 49 = 0011 0001
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c

c = ~a; # -61 = 1100 0011

print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c = a << 2; # 240 = 1111 0000

print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

c = a >> 2; # 15 = 0000 1111

print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

Output:

Line 1 - Value of c is 12
Line 2 - Value of c is 61
Line 3 - Value of c is 49
Line 4 - Value of c is -61
Line 5 - Value of c is 240
Line 6 - Value of c is 15

3.2.5 Logical Operators

Operator Description Example

and Logical AND If both the operands are true then (a and b) is true.
condition becomes true.
or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero (a or b) is true.
then condition becomes true.
not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its Not(a and b) is false.
operand.

3.2.6 Membership Operators

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists, or
tuples. There are two membership operators as explained below

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Operator Description Example

in Evaluates to true if it finds a x in y, here in results in a 1 if x is a
variable in the specified sequence member of sequence y.
and false otherwise.
not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds x not in y, here not in results in a 1 if x
a variable in the specified sequence is not a member of sequence y.
and false otherwise.

[Link]
a = 10
b = 20
list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];

if ( a in list ):
print "Line 1 - a is available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 1 - a is not available in the given list"

if ( b not in list ):
print "Line 2 - b is not available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 2 - b is available in the given list"

a=2
if ( a in list ):
print "Line 3 - a is available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 3 - a is not available in the given list"

Output:

Line 1 - a is not available in the given list

Line 2 - b is not available in the given list
Line 3 - a is available in the given list

3.2.7 Identity Operators

Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two Identity
operators explained below:

Operator Description Example

Is Evaluates to true if the variables on x is y, here is results in 1 if id(x)
either side of the operator point to the equals id(y).
same object and false otherwise.
is not Evaluates to false if the variables on x is not y, here is not results in 1 if
either side of the operator point to the id(x) is not equal to id(y).
same object and true otherwise.

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[Link]

a = 20
b = 20

if ( a is b ):
print "Line 1 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 1 - a and b do not have same identity"

if ( id(a) == id(b) ):
print "Line 2 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 2 - a and b do not have same identity"

b = 30
if ( a is b ):
print "Line 3 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity"

if ( a is not b ):
print "Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity"
else:
print "Line 4 - a and b have same identity"

Output:

Line 1 - a and b have same identity

Line 2 - a and b have same identity
Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity
Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity

3.2.8 Operators Precedence

The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.

Operator Description
** Exponentiation (raise to the power)
Complement, unary plus and minus (method names for the
~+- last two are +@ and -@)
* / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
+- Addition and subtraction
>> << Right and left bitwise shift
& Bitwise 'AND'
^| Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'

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<= < > >= Comparison operators

<> == != Equality operators
= %= /= //= -= += *= **= Assignment operators
is is not Identity operators
in not in Membership operators
not or and Logical operators

[Link]

a = 20
b = 10
c = 15
d=5
e=0

e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5
print "Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e

e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5
print "Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e

e = (a + b) * (c / d); # (30) * (15/5)

print "Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e

e = a + (b * c) / d; # 20 + (150/5)
print "Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e

Output:

Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is 90
Value of a + (b * c) / d is 50

3.3 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

1. if statement
2. if-else statement
3. if-elif-else statement
4. Nested if / conditional statement
5. Chained conditional

3.3.1 if statement

 Used to check a condition and control the flow of execution

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Syntax:

if expression:

statements

 Expression is a logical expression which tests and results either true or false

Flowchart:

[Link]
number=10
if number>0:
print(number," is a positive number")
number=-1
if number>0:
print(number," is a positive number")

Output:
10 is a positive number

3.3.2 if-else statement

 If there are two statements to be executed alternatively, then if-else statement is used.
 If the condition is true, then true statements are executed otherwise statements of else
part is executed.

Syntax: Flowchart:

if expression:
statements
else:
statements

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[Link]
number=28
if number%2==0:
print(number," is a even number")
else:
print(number," is a odd number")

Output:
28 is a even number

3.3.3 if-elif-else statement

 It is used to test more than one condition.
 If there are more than two alternatives to select,then nested if statements are used.

Syntax:

if expression:
body of if
elif expression:
body of elif
--
--
else:
body of else

Flowchart:
false

Expression

Expression

True
Body of if Body of elif Body of else

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[Link]
a=float(input("Enter the number:"))
if a>0:
print("The given number is a positive number")
elif a==0:
print("The given number is Zero")
else:
print("The given number is negative number")

Output:
Enter the number:-1
The given number is negative number
>>>
Enter the number:0
The given number is Zero
>>>
Enter the number:100
The given number is a positive number

3.3.4 Nested if statement

 Here a [Link] construct is placed inside another [Link] construct.
 Indendation has to be clear in flow of statements.
[Link]
#Program to print a number in text format from 1 to 5
value=int(input("Enter the value:"))
if value<=5:
if value==1:
print("One")
elif value==2:
print("Two")
elif value==3:
print("Three")
elif value==4:
print("Four")
elif value==5:
print("Five")
else:
print("try a number inside the limit")
Output:
>>>Enter the value:4
Four
>>>Enter the value:99
try a number inside the limit

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3.3.5 Chained conditional

 When there are more than two possibilities it requires more than two branches.
Syntax:

if expression:
body of if
elif expression:
body of elif
else:
body of else

Flowchart:

[Link]
value=10
if value==20:
print("Got a true value ",value)
elif value==15:
print("Got a true value ",value)
elif value==10:
print("Got a true value ",value)
else:
print("Got a false value ",value)
print("Program Over")

Output:
>>>Got a true value 10
Program Over

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3.4 ITERATION
 Repeated execution of set of statements until a specified condition becomes true is called
as iteration.
 Types:
1. while
2. for

3.4.1 while loop

 It is an entry controlled loop
 It executes a block of code repeatedly till the condition becomes true.

Syntax:

while expression:
statement(s)

Flowchart:

[Link]
count=0
while(count<5):
print("the count value is",count)
count=count+1
Output:
the count value is 0
the count value is 1
the count value is 2

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the count value is 3

the count value is 4

3.4.2 Nested while

 It is when a while loop is placed inside another while loop.
Syntax:
while expression:
while expression:
statements
statements

[Link]
x=-2
y=2
while x<=y:
print("x=",x)
x=x+1
while(x<=0):
print("x is negative")
x=x+1

Output:
x= -2
x is negative
x is negative
x= 1
x= 2

3.4.3 for loop

 Executes a sequence of statements multiple times.

Syntax:
for val in sequence:
Body of for

 Val is a variable that takes value of the item inside the sequence on each iteration.
 Loop continues until the last item in the sequence is reached.

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 For loop contains initialization & condition part, but increment and decrement
need not to be defined in python.
Flowchart:

[Link]
word = "computer"
for letter in word:
print(letter)
Output:
c
o
m
p
u
t
e
r

[Link]
num=[20,30,40]
for i in num:
print("The value of i is",i)
Output:
The value of i is 20

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The value of i is 30
The value of i is 40

3.4.4 Nested for loops

 For loop inside another for loop is called as nested for loop.
Syntax:
for val in sequence:
for val in sequence:
statements
statements

[Link]
for x in range(1,3):
for y in range(1,3):
print(x,"*",y,"=",x*y)
Output:
1*1=1
1*2=2
2*1=2
2*2=4

3.4.5 range()
 This function is used for iteration using for loop
 Default initial value of range() is 0.
 This returns a list of values.

Syntax:

range([start],stop,[step])

where, start is starting value

stop is end value,which stop-1

and step is difference between each number in that sequence.

[Link]

print("Range with one argument")

for i in range(5):
print(i)

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print("Range with two argument")

for i in range(10,20):
print(i)
print("Range with three argument")
for i in range(50,70,3):
print(i)
Output:

Range with one argument

0
1
2
3
4
Range with two argument
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Range with three argument
50
53
56
59
62
65
68

xrange()
 This works similar to range() but returns a xrange object.
 This is used when huge billion amount of values are to be generated.
 This works only in Pyhton 2v.
 It uses less memory.

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Syntax:

xrange([start],stop,[stop])

[Link]

print("xrange with single argument")

for i in xrange(6):
print(i)
print("xrange with two arguments")
for i in xrange(1,7):
print(i)
print("xrange with three arguments")
for i in xrange(1,10,3):
print(i)

Output:

xrange with single argument

0
1
2
3
4
5
xrange with two arguments
1
2
3
4
5
6
xrange with three arguments
1
4
7
3.5 LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS
3.5.1 Continue statement
 This returns control to the beginning of the loop.
 It rejects all remaining statements in the current iteration of the loop and moves the
control back to the top of the loop.

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 It can be used both in while and for loop.

Syntax: continue

Flowchart:

[Link]
for x in range(1,10):
if x==5:
continue
print("x=",x)
Output:
x= 1
x= 2
x= 3
x= 4
x= 6
x= 7
x= 8
x= 9
3.5.2 break
 It brings control out of the loop.

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 Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement immediately
following the loop.
Syntax:
break
Flowchart:

[Link]
for x in range(1,10):
if x==5:
break
print("x=",x)
Output:
x= 1
x= 2
x= 3
x= 4

3.5.3 pass
 The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically but
you do not want any command or code to execute.
 Used to write empty loops.

Syntax:
pass

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[Link]
for letter in "python":
if letter=="h":
pass
print("pass block")
print("letter=",letter)
Output:
letter= p
letter= y
letter= t
pass block
letter= h
letter= o
letter= n

3.6 FRUITFUL FUNCTIONS

 Functions that return values are called as fruitful functions.

 The opposite is void function.
 The return statement is followed by an expression which is evaluated.
 Its result is returned to the caller as the “fruit” of calling function.

needs return
Fruitful Function

[Link]
def square(b):
c=b*b
return c
b=5
result=square(b)
print("The square of ",b," is ",result)

Output:
The square of 5 is 25
>>>

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3.6.1 Return values

 Return is a keyword which is used to return a value from the function

definition block to the function calling line.
 Return takes zero,values or an expression.
 Default value is none.
 If many values are used then,use a tuple or list.

3.6.2 Parameters / Arguments (Refer Unit 2 for detailed explanation)

 These are the inputs given to a function.
 Input values (parameters) are passed from function calling line to
function definition block, where here it is called as arguments.
 Types:
1. Required arguments.
2. Keyword arguments.
3. Default arguments.
4. Variable-length arguments.
#Example for Required argument
[Link]
def a(s):
print(s)
return
a(100)
a(100,2)
Output:
100
TypeError: a() takes 1 positional argument but 2 were given
>>>

#Example for Keyword argument

[Link]
def a(s,d):
print(s,d)
return
a(s=100,d="Black")
a(d="Black",s=100)

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Output:
100 Black
100 Black

#Example for Default argument

[Link]
def a(s,d=20):
print(d,s)
return
a(15)
a(15,5)

Output:
20 15
5 15

#Example for Variable-length argument

[Link]
def a(*s):
for i in s:
print(i)
return
a(10,20,30)
a("hai")
Output:
10
20
30
hai

#Program to add two numbers by passing parameters

[Link]
def add(a,b):
c=a+b
return c
y=add(2,2)
print(y)

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Output:
4
>>>

3.6.3 Scope of Variables

 The part of a program where a variable is accessible is called its scope, and the
duration for which the variable exists is called its lifetime.
 There are two basic scopes of variables.
1. Global variables
2. Local variables
 A variable defined in the main body of a program at the top is called a global variable
and is visible throughout the life.
 A variable defined inside a function is local to that function.
[Link]
def ss(a):
a=10
print("value inside function:",a)
return a
a=20
print("value when return is used:",ss(a))
print("value outside function:",a)

Output:
value inside function: 10
value when return is used: 10
value outside function: 20

3.6.4 Composition
 The ability of calling one function from within another function is called
as composition.

[Link]
#Program to find square of a number
c=float(input("Enter a value:"))
d=c**2

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print(d)

Output:
Enter a value:2.5
6.25

 Here the input function is used inside float function.

 Input function considers any input value as a string, and according to our needs we
have to use either int() or float() to convert the input value into integer or floating
value to process in our program.

3.6.5 Recursion

 Recursion is a process of calling a function by itself again and again until some
condition is satisfied.
 A recursive function must have
1. A statement to test whether the function is calling itself again.
2. A statement that calls the function itself must be an argument.
3. A conditional statement
4. A return statement.
Advantages:
1. The code look clean and elegant.
2. Large problems broken down into small problems

Disadvantages:
1. Logic is hard to follow.
2. It takes more memory.
3. It is hard to debug.
[Link]
#Program to find factorial using recursion

def factorial(n):
if n==1:
return 1
else:
return n*factorial(n-1)

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print(factorial(5))

Output:
120
>>>

[Link]
#Program to find Fibonacci series till 10 terms

def fibo(n):
if n<=1:
return n
else:
return(fibo(n-1)+fibo(n-2))
terms=10
print("Fibonacci series")
for i in range(terms):
print(fibo(i))

Output:
Fibonacci series
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34

3.7 STRINGS
 It is a sequence of characters treated as a single data item enclosed within
either single or double quotes or even triple quotes.

[Link]
example='I am found of chocolates'
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print(example)
example="I am found of ice creams"
print(example)
example='''I am found of cakes too'''
print(example)
example=''
print(example)

Output:
I am found of chocolates
I am found of ice creams
I am found of cakes too

>>>
[Link]
#string with single quote
var1='python'
print(var1)
#string with double quote
var1="python"
print(var1)
#string with triple quote
var1="""Python is one of the programming
language"""
print(var1)
Output:
python
python
Python is one of the programming
Language
3.7.1 String Slices
 A portion or a filtered part of a string is called as slice.
 Slice is used to take sub parts of either from list or string.
Syntax:

Substring=originalstring[start:end]
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Start- start index value which is included

End- end index value which is excluded

Example
0 1 2 3 4
B L A C K
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1

 The above example contains both positive and negative indexing.

[Link]

b='Live and let live'

print(b[0:5])
print(b[3:])
print(b[:6])
print(b[:])

Output:
Live
e and let live
Live a
Live and let live
>>>

[Link]
str='Python Programming'
print("The Given String is",str)
print("The first character in the String is",str[0])
print("The character starting from 3rd to 5th position is",str[2:5])
print("The String starting from 3rd character is",str[2:])
print("The last character of the string is",str[-1])
print("The String from negative indices is",str[-5:])

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Output:
The Given String is Python Programming
The first character in the String is P
The character starting from 3rd to 5th position is tho
The String starting from 3rd character is thon Programming
The last character of the string is g
The String from negative indices is mming

3.7.2 Immutability
 Strings in python are immutable i,e after created it cannot be changed.
 No assignments can be done later but updation is possible.

[Link]
#NO ITEM ASSIGNMENT IN PYTHON
var1="python"
var1[2]="T"
Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
var1[2]="T"
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

[Link]
#NO ITEM DELETION IN PYTHON
var1="python"
del var1
Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item deletion

[Link]
var1="python"
del var1
print(var1)

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Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
print(var1)
NameError: name 'var1' is not defined

[Link]
v1 = 'Are you okay!'
print("Updated String:",v1[:13] +' baby')

Output:
Updated String: Are you okay! Baby

3.7.3 String Operators

Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds ' boys ', then −

Operator Description Example

Concatenation - Adds values on either side of a + b will give Helloboys
+ the operator
Repetition - Creates new strings, a*2 will give -HelloHello
* concatenating multiple copies of the same
string
Slice - Gives the character from the given a[1] will give e
[] index
Range Slice - Gives the characters from the a[1:4] will give ell
[:] given range
Membership - Returns true if a character H in a will give true
in exists in the given string
Membership - Returns true if a character does M not in a will give true
not in not exist in the given string

[Link]
a='I hate bitter food'
b="badly"
print("The Concatenation of the String is:",a+b)
print("The Repetition of the String is:",a*2)
print("The Slicing of the string is:",a[2])
print("The Slicing of the string is:",a[3:6])

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print("The membership operator of the string is:",'t' in a)

print("The membership operator of the string is:",'B' not in b)

Output:
The Concatenation of the String is: I hate bitter foodbadly
The Repetition of the String is: I hate bitter foodI hate bitter food
The Slicing of the string is: h
The Slicing of the string is: ate
The membership operator of the string is: True
The membership operator of the string is: True
>>>
3.7.4 String formatting Operator
 Symbol used is %.
 It is mainly used for print()
Format Symbol Conversion

%c character

%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting

%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

%u unsigned decimal integer

%o octal integer

%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)

%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)

%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')

%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')

%f floating point real number

%g the shorter of %f and %e

%G the shorter of %f and %E

3.7.5 Escape sequences in string

Escape Sequence Description

\newline Backslash and newline ignored
\\ Backslash

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\' Single quote

\" Double quote
\a ASCII Bell
\b ASCII Backspace
\f ASCII Formfeed
\n ASCII Linefeed
\r ASCII Carriage Return
\t ASCII Horizontal Tab
\v ASCII Vertical Tab
\ooo Character with octal value ooo
\xHH Character with hexadecimal value HH

3.7.6 String functions & String Methods

 Many built-in string methods of strings are available.
 Some examples are.,

capitalize() center() casefold() count() endswith() encode()

find() format() index() split() rsplit() title()

zfill() isalpha() isdecimal() isdigit() islower() isupper()

join() strip() partition() replace() startswith() isnumeric()

1. capitalize()function
 This returns a string with first letter in capital letters.
 Syntax:
[Link]()

 This doesnot takes any argument.

 If first letter is already a capital letter or non-alphabet,then it returns the
original string.
[Link]
var1="python programming"
print("The result of capitalize function is",[Link]())

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Output:
The result of capitalize function is Python programming

[Link]() function
 This method returns a string padded with specified character to fill.
 It doesnot modify the original string.
 Syntax:
[Link](width[,fillchar])

where width is length of the string & fill char is character to be filled.
[Link]
str="I lost my books!"
print([Link](18,'a'))
Output:
aI lost my books!a

[Link]() function
 This method removes all case variations in a string.
 It is used for caseless matching.
 It doesnot take any parameters.
 Syntax:
[Link]()

[Link]

a1="PYTHON programming"

print("The result of casefold function is",[Link]())

Output:

The result of casefold function is python programming

>>>

[Link]() function

 This function returns number of occurrences of substring in the range[start,end].

 Syntax

[Link](substring,start= … , end=…)

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where substring whose count is to be found.& start,end or optional.

[Link]

var1="Engineering Knowledge"

print("The result of count function is",[Link]('e'))

Output:

The result of count function is 4

>>>

[Link]() function

 This method returns True if a string ends with the specified suffix otherwise return
false.
 Syntax:

[Link](suffix[,start[,end]])

where suffix is string to be checked * start,end are optional.

[Link]
t="English is just a language not knowledge"
result=[Link](" knowledge")
print(result)
result=[Link](" knowledge.")
print(result)
result=[Link]("not")
print(result)

Output:
True
False
False
>>>

[Link]() function
 This function is used to return the lowest index of the substring (if found) otherwise
returns -1.
 Syntax:
[Link](sub[,start[,end]])

[Link]
var1="PYTHON programming"

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print("The result of find function is",[Link]('PYTHON'))

print("The result of find function is",[Link]('Pyhton'))

Output:
The result of find function is 0
The result of find function is -1
>>>

[Link]()function

 This is used to make the presentation of output more neatly

 Synatx:

[Link](posarg1,posarg2,…..,keyarg0=v0,keyarg1=v1,….)

posarg is positional arguments & keyarg is keyword argument.

[Link]

print("Hi {},welcome to {}".format("all","python"))

#positional arguments
print("Hi {1},welcome to {0}".format("all","python"))
#keyword arguments
print("Hi {key},welcome to {name}".format(key="all",name="python"))
#mixed arguments
print("Hi {0},welcome to {name}".format("all",name="python"))
Output:
Hi all,welcome to python
Hi python,welcome to all
Hi all,welcome to python
Hi all,welcome to python
>>>
[Link]()function

 This function returns the index of a substring inside the string otherwise it raises a
value error exception.
 Syntax:
[Link](sub[,start[,end]])

[Link]

var1="welcome to python programming"

result=[Link]('to python')

print("substring 'to python' ",result)

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Output:

substring 'to python' 8

[Link]() function

 It breaks up a string at the specified separator and returns.

 Syntax:
[Link]([separator[,max]])

where separator is the place where the split occurs & max is maximum number of splits.

[Link]

new='abcdef'

items='black,blue,green'

print([Link]())

print([Link](','))

Output:

['abcdef']

['black', 'blue', 'green']

[Link]()function

 This method returns True if a string starts with the specified prefix otherwise returns
false.
 Syntax:

[Link](prefix[,start[,end]])

[Link]
t1="Computer Language"
r1=[Link]('Language',9)
print(r1)
r1=[Link]('Language',2)
print(r1)

Output:
True
False
>>>

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3.7.7 String module

 String module has numerous predefined methods to process in python.

[Link] (String module)

import string
s="Welcome to the world of Robotics"
print("Upper case:",[Link](s))
print("Lower case:",[Link](s))
print("Split:",[Link](s))
print("Join:"," ".join(s))
print("Replace:",[Link](s,"Robotics","Innovation"))
print("Find:",[Link](s,"world"),[Link](s,"of"))
print("Count:",[Link](s,"t"))Output:

Output:
Upper case: WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF ROBOTICS
Lower case: welcome to the world of robotics
Split: ['Welcome', 'to', 'the', 'world', 'of', 'Robotics']
Join: W e l c o m e t o t h e w o r l d o f R o b o t i c s
Replace: Welcome to the world of Innovation
Find: 15 21
Count: 3

[Link] (string methods without using string module functions)

text="Welcome to the world of Robotics"

print("Upper case:",[Link]())
print("Lower case:",[Link]())
print("Split:",[Link]())
print("Join:","+".join([Link]()))
print("Replace:",[Link]("Robotics","Innovation"))
print("Find:",[Link]("world"),[Link]("of"))
print("Count:",[Link]("t"))
Output:
Upper case: WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF ROBOTICS
Lower case: welcome to the world of robotics
Split: ['Welcome', 'to', 'the', 'world', 'of', 'Robotics']
Join: Welcome+to+the+world+of+Robotics
Replace: Welcome to the world of Innovation
Find: 15 21
Count: 3

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3.8 LISTS AS ARRAYS

 A List is a group of values.
 Each and every value in a list is called as elements or items.
 Each element is separated using ,.
 List can also be sliced as [m:n].

Example

a=[1,2,5,8,9]

b=[“a”,”g”,”r”]

c=[67,”red”,90,”yellow”]

3.8.1 Accessing values in Lists:

 [] are used to access values in a list for slicing along with the index or indices to
obtain value available at that index.
 Slice[m:n] where m is starting index which is included & n in end index which is
excluded.

[Link]

l1=['English','Maths',1000,3000]
l2=[10,20,30,40,50]
print(l1[0])
print(l2[2:4])
print(l1[:-2])
print(l2[-6])

Output:
English
[30, 40]
['English', 'Maths']
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "python", line 6, in <module>
IndexError: list index out of range

3.8.2 Updating list

 Single or multiple elements can be updated in a list by giving the slice on the left-
hand side of the assignment operator and also add the elements in a list with the
append() method.

[Link]
s=['Red','green','Blue','yellow','Purple']
print("value at index 2:",s[2])

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s[2]='Lavender'
print(s)
[Link]('Orange')
print(s)

Output:
value at index 2: Blue
['Red', 'green', 'Lavender', 'yellow', 'Purple']
['Red', 'green', 'Lavender', 'yellow', 'Purple', 'Orange']

3.8.3 Deleting elements in a List

 When index of element is known then, ‘del’ keyword is used to delete.
 When element to delete is known,then remove() method is used.

[Link]
s=['Red','green','Blue','yellow','Purple']
print(s)
del s[2]
print(s)
[Link]('yellow')
print(s)

Output:
['Red', 'green', 'Blue', 'yellow', 'Purple']
['Red', 'green', 'yellow', 'Purple']
['Red', 'green', 'Purple']

3.9 ILLUSTRATIVE PROGRAMS

1. Square root of a number
import math
num=16
result=[Link](num)
print("Square root value is:",result)
Output:
Square root value is: 4.0

2. GCD of two numbers

def gcd(a,b):
if(b==0):
return a
else:
return gcd(b,a%b)
a=int(input("Enter the first number:"))
b=int(input("Enter the second number:"))

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result=gcd(a,b)
print("GCD is:",result)

Output:

Enter the first number: 30

Enter the second number: 12
GCD is: 6

3. Exponentiation of a number
def power(base,exp):
if(exp==1):
return(base)
if(exp!=1):
return(base*power(base,exp-1))
base=int(input("Enter base: "))
exp=int(input("Enter exponential value: "))
print("Result:",power(base,exp))

Output:

Enter base: 3
Enter exponential value: 2
Result: 9

4. Sum of array of numbers

b=[2,5,8,1,0,9,5]
sum=0
for i in b:
sum=sum+i
print("Sum of array of numbers in list is :",sum)
Output:

Sum of array of numbers in list is : 30

5. Linear search
list=[8,4,10,54,89]
search=int(input("Enter the number to search:"))
length=len(list)
for i in range(0,length):
if list[i]==search:
print(search," is found at the position ",i+1)
break
else:
print("Number not found")

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Output:

Enter the number to search: 10

10 is found at the position 3

Enter the number to search: 1

Number not found

6. Binary search

def binarysearch(sortedlist,n,x):
start = 0
end = n - 1
while(start <= end):
mid = (start + end)//2
mid=int(mid) #gives mid a rounded value if it is in float
if (x == sortedlist[mid]):
return mid
elif(x < sortedlist[mid]):
end = mid - 1
else:
start = mid + 1
return -1

n =5
sortedlist = [10,23,38,41,50]

x = int(input("Enter the number to search: "))

position = binarysearch(sortedlist, n, x)
if(position != -1):
print("Entered number %d is present at position: %d"%(x,position+1))
else:
print("Entered number %d is not present in the list"%x)
Output:

Enter the number to search: 38

Entered number 38 is present at position: 3

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