PYTHON

GUIDE
FOR
BEGINNERS
 A Complete
Python Guide
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Python
1.1 Whatis Python?
1.2 History and Evolution of Python
1.3 Features and Advantages of Python
1.4 Real-World Applications of Python
1.5 Installing Python and Setting Up the Environment

1.6 Running Python Scripts Interactive Mode vs. Script Mode)

1.7 Understanding Pythonʼs REPL Read-Eval-Print Loop)
1.8 Writing and Executing a Simple Python Program

2. Python Basics
2.1 PythonSyntax andIndentation Rules
2.2 Variables and Constants
2.3 Data Types in Python
 Numeric Types: int, float, complex
 Text Type: str
 Sequence Types: list, tuple, range
 Set Type: set, frozenset
 Mapping Type: dict
2.4 Type Casting and Type Checking

Python Notes 1
 2.5 Taking User Input (input() function)
2.6 Printing Output (print() function, f-strings, format method)
2.7 Comments in Python Single-line and Multi-line)

3. Operators and Expressions

3.1 Arithmetic Operators (+, , - *, , %, //, **)
3.2 Comparison Operators (== , !/ > , < , >= , <= )

3.3 Logical Operators (and , or , no,t

3, ,. 4 Bitwise Operators (& ^, )~, <<, >>)

|
= , += , -= , *=, etc.)
3.5 Assignment Operators i s n(ot)
3..67 MIdeemntbitey rOshpiepr Oatpoersra (tios,r s (in , noti n)
3

3.8 Operator Precedence and Associativity

4. Control Flow Statements

4.1 Conditional Statements
• if Statement
• if-else Statement

• if-elif-else Statement
4.2 Looping in Python
• for Loop
• while Loop
4.3 Nested Loops
4.4 Loop Control Statements
• break Statement
• continue Statement
• pass Statement

Python Notes 2
 5. Data Structures in Python
5.1 Lists

Creating Lists

Accessing Elements Indexing & Slicing)

Adding and Removing Elements (append(), extend() , inser t() , remove() , pop() )
Sorting and Reversing Lists

5.2 Tuples
Tuple Characteristics Immutable)

Creating and Accessing Tuples

Tuple Methods

5.3 Sets
Set Properties Unordered, Unique Elements)

Creating and Manipulating Sets

Set Operations (union(), intersection(), difference())

5.4 Dictionaries
Key-Value Pair Structure Adding,

Accessing, and Deleting Elements

Dictionary Methods

(keys(), values(), items())

5.5 Strings
String Operations (upper(), lower(), str ip(), split() , )
join()

String Formatting (f-strings, format(), % Operator)

6. Functions
6.1DefiningandCalling Functions

Python Notes 3
 6.2 Function Arguments
 Positional Arguments
 Default Arguments
 Keyword Arguments

 Arbitrary Arguments (*args, **kwargs)

6.3 Returning Values from Functions
6.4 Scope and Lifetime of Variables
6.5 Recursive Functions
6.6 Anonymous Lambda) Functions

7. Modules
7.1 Understanding Modules in Python
7.2 Importing Modules (import, from ... import, as)
7.3 Creating and Using Custom Modules
7.4 Standard Library Modules (math, random, datetimeo,s , etc.)

7.5 The sys Module and Command-line Arguments

7.6 Using pip to Install External Modules

8. File Handling
8.1 Opening and Closing Files (open(), close() )
8.2 Reading and Writing Files (read(), wr ite() , wr itelines() )

8.3 File Modes (r, w, a, rb, wb)

8.4 Working with CSV Files (csv module)
8.5 Handling JSON Data (json module)

9. Exception Handling
9.1 Understanding Errors in Python

Python Notes 4
 9.2 Using try and except Blocks
9.3 Handling Multiple Exceptions
9.4 The finally Block
9.5 Raising Custom Exceptions ( raise keyword)

10. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

10.1 Understanding Classes and Objects

10.2 Defining and Using a Class (__init__ Constructor)

10.3 Instance and Class Variables
10.4 Inheritance and Types of Inheritance
10.5 Method Overriding and Polymorphism
10.6 Encapsulation and Abstraction
10.7 Magic Methods (__str__, __len__, etc.)

11. Python Libraries Overview

11.1 Data Analysis

NumPy Arrays, Mathematical Operations)

Pandas DataFrames, Series, Data Manipulation)

11.2 Data Visualization

Matplotlib Basic and Advanced Plotting)

Seaborn Statistical Data Visualization)

11.3 Machine Learning

Scikit-learn Regression, Classification, Clustering)

11.4 Web Scraping

Requests Fetching Web Pages)

Python Notes 5
 BeautifulSoup Parsing HTML

11.5 Automation
Selenium Automating Browsers)

11.6 Working with Databases

SQLite ( sqlite3 module)

MySQL  MySQL Connector )

12. Working with APIs

12.1 Understanding APIs and RESTful Services
12.2 Making HTTP Requests (requests module)
12.3 Parsing JSON Data (json module)
12.4 Working with Public APIs OpenWeather, GitHub API
12.5 Creating a Simple API using Flask

13. Web Development with Python

13.1 Flask Framework
Setting Up Flask

Creating Routes and Views

Handling Forms

Notes begins here :)

Introduction to Python

1. Introduction to Python

Python Notes 6
 1.1 What is Python?
Pythoni s a high-level, interpreted, and general-purpose programming
language known for its simplicity, readability, and versatility. It was created
by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Python supports multiple
programming paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented, and
functional programming.

🔹 Key Characteristics of Python:

Interpreted: Python does not need compilation; the interpreter executes
code line by line.
Dynamically Typed: No need to declare variable types explicitly.

Cross-platform: Runs on Windows, macOS, and Linux without

modification.
Extensible: Can integrate with C, C, Java, and more.

1.2 History and Evolution of Python

Version Release Year Key Features

Python 1.0 1991 Initial release by Guido van Rossum

List comprehensions, garbage collection with
Python 2.0 2000 reference counting
Unicode support, print function, new integer
Python 3.0 2008 division
f-strings, type hints, async/await
Python 3.6 2016
Pattern matching, structural pattern matching
Python 3.10 2021

🔹 Python 2 vs. Python 3

Python 2 is outdated and no longer maintained (official support ended in
2020.
Python 3 is the current and actively developed version.

1.3 Features and Advantages of Python

Python Notes 7
 🔹 Key Features:
✔ Easy to Read and Write: Uses indentation instead of braces {}.
✔ Extensive Standard Library: Includes built-in modules for OS, networking,
math, etc.
✔ Automatic Memory Management: Uses garbage collection.
✔ Interpreted Language: No need for compilation like C/C.
✔ High-level Language: Allows focusing on logic rather than low-level
details.
🔹 Advantages of Python:
✅ Beginner-friendly: Simple syntax, easy to learn.
✅ Large Community Support: Active developers and open-source
contr ibutions.
✅ Versatile: Used in web development, AI, data science, automation, and
more.

1.4 Real-World Applications of Python

🔹 1. Web Development: Flask, Django Used by Instagram, YouTube)
🔹 2. Data Science & Machine Learning: NumPy, Pandas, Scikit-learn Used
byGoogle, Netflix)
🔹 3. Artificial Intelligence: TensorFlow, PyTorch Used by OpenAI,
DeepMind)
🔹 4. Automation & Scripting: Selenium, BeautifulSoup Used for bots, web
scraping)
🔹 5. Cybersecurity: Used in penetration testing (e.g., Kali Linux tools)
🔹 6. Game Development: Pygame Used for 2D game prototyping)
7. Internet of Things IoT MicroPython Used for Raspberry Pi projects)
🔹
📌 Example Use Case: NASA uses Python for scientific computing.

Python Notes 8
 1.5 Installing Python and Setting Up the
Environment
🔹 [Link]:
Windows: Download from [Link].

macOS Pre-installed (upgrade using brew install python3).

Linux: Install via sudo apt install python3 Debian/Ubuntu) or
sudodnfinstall python3

Fedora).

🔹 2. Verify Installation:
Run:

python --version

or

python3 --version

🔹 3. Install a Code Editor IDE

Beginner-friendly: IDLE (built-in), Thonny

Popular Choices: VS Code, PyCharm, Jupyter Notebook

🔹 4. Install Dependencies PIP

Pythonʼs package manager pip is used to install external libraries:

pip install numpy

1.6 Running Python Scripts (Interactive Mode vs.

Script Mode)
🔹 [Link] Mode REPL  Read-Eval-PrintLoop)
Run Python directly in the terminal using:

Python Notes 9
 python

Example:

>>> print("Hello, Python!")

Hello, Python!

Best for quick tests and debugging.

🔹 2. Script Mode Running .py files)
Write Python code in a .py file and execute:

python my_script.py

Example ([Link]):
Run it:

print("Welcome to Python!")

python [Link]

1.7 Understanding Pythonsʼ REPL (Read-Eval-Print

Loop)
📌 What is REPL?
REPL stands for Read-Eval-Print Loop, a command-line environment that
allows interactive execution of Python commands.
🔹 How REPL Works:
 Read Takes user input (>>>)

 Evaluate Executes the statement

 Print Displays output

Python Notes 10
  Loop Repeats the process

🔹 Example:
>>> a  10
>>> b  20
>>> a + b
30

🔹 Useful REPL Commands:

help()  Opens interactive help
exit()  Exits Python REPL
_ (underscore)  Stores last evaluated expression

1.8 Writing and Executing a Simple Python Program

📌 Letʼs write our first Python program!
🔹 Step 1 Open a text editor VS Code, PyCharm, Notepad++)
🔹 Step 2 Write the following code in a file named first_program.py :
# This is a simple Python program
print("Hello, World!")

🔹 Step 3 Run the program in the terminal:

python first_program.py

🔹 Expected Output:
Hello, World!

Python Basics

Python Notes 11
 2. Python Basics
2.1PythonSyntaxandIndentation Rules

Python syntaxi scleanand easyto [Link] languages that use curly

braces {} to define blocks of code, Python relies on indentation.

🔹 Key Syntax Rules:

✔ Statements end at a new line (no semicolons required)
✔ Indentation defines blocks of code (instead of {})
✔ Case-sensitive language (Var and var are different)
✔ Colons (:) indicate code blocks (e.g., functions, loops)
🔹 Example:
✅ Correct:
def greet():
print("Hello, Python!") # Indentation is required
greet()

❌ Incorrect Indentation Error):

def greet():
print("Hello, Python!") # Missing indentation

🔹 Best Practices:
Use 4 spaces for indentation PEP 8 standard).

Avoid mixing spaces and tabs.

2.2 Variables and Constants

🔹 Variables:
Variables store data in memory.

Python Notes 12
 No need to declare types explicitly (dynamic typing).

Example:

name = "Python"
age  30
pi  3.14
print(name, age, pi)

🔹 Rules for Naming Variables:

✔ Must start with a letter AZ, a-z) or underscore (_)
✔ Can contain
letters, numbers, and underscores
✔ Cannot be a Python keyword (e.g., class, if, for)
🔹 Constants:
Python does not have built-in constants, but we use UPPERCASE naming
convention.

PI  3.14159 # A constant by convention

MAX_USERS  100

2.3 Data Types in Python

Python provides several built-in data types:

Numeric Types: int , float , complex

num1  10 # int
num2  3.14 # float
num3  3  4j # complex
print(type(num1), type(num2), type(num3))

Text Type: str

Python Notes 13
 text = "Hello, Python!"
pr int(t ype(tex t))

Sequence Types: list , tuple, range

✔ List Mutable, Ordered)
my_list = 1, 2, 3, "Python"]
my_list.append(4) # Adding element
print(my_list)

✔ Tuple Immutable, Ordered)

my_tuple = 1, 2, 3, "Python")
print(my_tuple[0]) # Accessing elements

✔ Range Sequence of Numbers)

r = range(1, 10, 2 # Start, Stop, Step
print(list(r)) # Convert range to list

Set Types: set , frozenset

✔ Set Unordered, Unique Elements)
my_set = 1, 2, 3, 3, 4
print(my_set) # Duplicates are removed

✔ Frozenset Immutable Set)

f_set = frozenset([1, 2, 3, 4
pr int(f_set)

Mapping Type: dict (Key-Value Pairs)

Python Notes 14
 my_dict = {"name": "Python", "year" 1991
pr int(my_dict["name"])

2.4 Type Casting and Type Checking

🔹 Type Checking:
num  10
print(type(num)) # <class 'int'>

🔹 Type Casting Converting Data Types):

✔ int()  Convert to integer
✔ float()  Convert to float
✔ str()  Convert to string
✔ list()  Convert to list
a = "100"
b = int(a) # Convert string to integer
c = float(b) # Convert integer to float
print(b, c)

2.5 Taking User Input ( input() function)

Python allows user input using the input() function.

name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello,", name)

🔹 By default, input() returns a string.

For numeric input, convert it using int() or float().

Python Notes 15
 age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print("Next year, you will be", age  1

2.6 Printing Output ( print() function, f-strings,

format method)
🔹 Using print() function:
print("Hello, Python!")
print(10, 20, 30 # Multiple values
print("Python", "is", "fun", sep="-") # Custom separator

🔹 Using format() method:

name = "Alice"
age  25
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age))

🔹 Using f-strings Recommended, Python 3.6

name = "Alice"
age  25
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

🔹 Printing with Special Characters:

✔ \\n  New line
✔ \\t  Tab space
print("Hello\\nWorld") # New line
print("Name:\\tAlice") # Tab space

2.7 Comments in Python (Single-line and Multi-line)

Python Notes 16
 🔹 Single-line comments (#)
# This is a comment
print("Hello, World!") # This is an inline comment

🔹 Multi-line comments (""" """ or ''' ''')

"""
This is a multi-line comment.
It can span multiple lines.
"""
print("Python Basics")

🔹 Use Comments for:

✔ Code documentation
✔ Temporarily disabling code
✔ Explaining complex logic
Operators and Expressions

3. Operators and Expressions

Operators are special symbols in Python that perform operations on variables
and values. Expressions are combinations of variables, operators, and values
that produce a result.

3.1 Arithmetic Operators (+ , - , * , / , % , // , * )

Arithmetic operators perform mathematical calculations.

Operator Descr iption Example Output

+ Addition 53 8

- Subtraction 10  4 6

* Mul tiplic ation 62 12

Python Notes 17
 / Division (floating-point) 7/2 3.5

% Modulus (remainder) 7%2 1

Floor division (quotient without

// 7 // 2 3
decimal)

**
Exponentiation (power) 2 ** 3 8

🔹 Examples:
a, b  10, 3 print(a + b) #
13 print(a - b) # 7 print(a *
b) # 30 print(a / b) #
3.3333 print(a % b) # 1
print(a // b) # 3 print(a **
b) # 1000 10^3

3.2 Comparison Operators (==, !=, > , < , >=,

<=)
Comparison operators are used to compare values. They return a Boolean
(True or False).

Operator Descr iption Example Output

== Equal to 5  5 True

! Not equal to 5 ! 3 True

> Greater than 53 True

< Less than 53 False

>= Greater than or equal to 5  5 True

<= Less than or equal to 5  3 False

🔹 Examples:

Python Notes 18
 x, y  10, 20
print(x == y) # False
print(x ! y) # True
print(x
# False> y)
print(x
# True < y)
print(x >= y) # False
print(x <= y) # True

3.3 Logical Operators (and, or , not )

Logical operators are used to combine multiple conditions.

Operator Descr iption Example Output

Returns True if both conditions 5  3 and 10 
and True
are True 5
Returns True if at least one
5  10 or 10 
or condition is True True
5
Reverses the Boolean result
not not(5  3 False

🔹 Examples:
a, b  True, False
print(a and b) # False
print(a or b) # True
print(not a) # False

3.4 Bitwise Operators ( & , | , ^ , ~ , <<, >>)

Bitwise operators perform operations on binary representations of numbers.

Operator Descr iption Example Binary) Output

& AND 5 & 3 → 0101 & 0011 0001 1

` ` OR `5
^ XOR 5 ^ 3 → 0101 ^ 0011 0110 6

Python Notes 19
 ~ NOT Inverts bits) 5 6

<< Left Shift 5  1 0101  1010 10

>> Right Shift 5  1 0101  0010 2

🔹 Examples:
x, y  5, 3
print(x & y) # 1 AND
print(x | y) # 7 OR
print(x ^ y) # 6 XOR
print(~x) # 6 NOT
print(x  1 # 10 Left shift)
print(x  1 # 2 Right shift)

3.5 Assignment Operators ( = , +=, = , = , etc.)

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

Operator Example Equivalent To

= x5 x5

+= x  3 x=x3

-= x  3 x=x3

*= x * 3 x=x*3

/= x / 3 x=x/3

% x % 3 x=x%3

//= x // 3 x = x // 3

**= x ** 3 x = x ** 3

🔹 Examples:
x  10
x  5 # x = x  5  15

Python Notes 20
 x * 2 # x = x * 2  30
pr int(x)

3.6 Identity Operators ( is , is not )

Identity operators check if two variables refer to the same object in memory.

Operator Example Output

is x is y True if x and y are same object

is not x is not y True if x and y are different objects

🔹 Examples:
a = 1, 2, 3
b=a
c = 1, 2, 3

print(a is b) # True (same object)

print(a is c) # False (different objects)
print(a == c) # True (same values)

3.7 Membership Operators (in, not in)

Membership operators check whether a value is in a sequence (like a list,
tuple, or string).

Operator Example Output

in "a" in "apple" True

not in "x" not in "apple" True

🔹 Examples:
numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4
print(2 in numbers) # True
print(5 not in numbers) # True

Python Notes 21
 3.8 Operator Precedence and Associativity
Operatorprecedencedeterminestheorderinwhichoperationsare
per formed.

🔹 Precedence Order Highest to Lowest):

 () Parentheses

 * Exponentiation

 +x, x, ~x Unary operators

 , /, //, % Multiplication, division, modulus

 +, Addition and subtraction

 <<, >> Bitwise shifts

 & Bitwise AND

 ^ Bitwise XOR
 | Bitwise OR

 ==, !, >, <, >=, <= Comparisons

 not Logical NOT

 and Logical AND

 or Logical OR
 = Assignment

🔹 Examples:
print(2  3  4 # 14 * has higher precedence than +)
print((2  3 * 4 # 20 Parentheses change precedence)

Control Flow Statements

4. Control Flow Statements in Python

Python Notes 22
 Control flow statements determine the execution order of statements in a
program. They allow decision-making and looping, enabling programs to
respond dynamically to different conditions.

4.1 Conditional Statements

Conditional statements allow decision-making based on conditions. They
evaluate Boolean expressions and execute different code blocks accordingly.

🔹 if Statement

The if statement executes a block of code only if a condition is True .

If the condition is False, the code inside the if block is skipped.

Syntax:

if condition:
# Code to execute when the condition is True

Example:

age  20
if age  18
print("You are eligible to vote.")

Output:

You are eligible to vote.

🔹 if-else Statement

The else block executes when the if condition is False.

Syntax:

if condition:
# Code when condition is True

Python Notes 23
 else:
# Code when condition is False

Example:

num  5
if num % 2  0
print("Even number")
else:
print("Odd number")

Output:

Odd number

🔹 if-elif-else Statement

The elif block checks multiple conditions.

It runs the first block that evaluates to True. If none are True , else executes.

Syntax:

if condition1
# Executes if condition1 is True
elif condition2
# Executes if condition1 is False and condition2 is True
else:
# Executes if both conditions are False

Example:

marks  85

if marks  90
print("Grade: A")

Python Notes 24
 elif marks  75
print("Grade: B")
elif marks  50
print("Grade: C")
else:
print("Fail")

Output:

Grade: B

4.2 Looping in Python

Loops repeat a block of code multiple times.

🔹 for Loop

Used to iterate over sequences (lists, tuples, strings, ranges, etc.).

The loop automatically stops when it reaches the end of the sequence.

Syntax:

for variable in sequence:

# Code to execute in each iteration

Example:

for num in range(1, 6):

print(num)

Output:

1
2
3

Python Notes 25
 4
5

Looping through a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)

Output:

apple
banana
cher r y

🔹 while Loop

The while loop runs as long as a condition remains True.

It is useful when the number of iterations is not known in advance.

Syntax:

while condition:
# Code to execute while condition is True

Example:

count  1
while count  5
print(count)
count  1

Output:

Python Notes 26
 1
2
3
4
5

⚠ Be careful of infinite loops!

while True:
print("This will run forever!") # Avoid this unless intentional

4.3 Nested Loops

A loop inside another loop.

The inner loop executes completely for each iteration of the outer loop.

Example:

for i in range(1, 3): # Outer loop

for j in range(1, 4): # Inner loop
print(f"i={i}, j={j}")

Output:

i=1, j=1
i=1, j=2
i=1, j=3
i=2, j=1
i=2, j=2
i=2, j=3

4.4 Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements modify the execution of loops.

Python Notes 27
 🔹 break Statement

Exits the loop immediately when encountered.

Example:

for num in range(1, 6):

if num  4
break # Exits the loop when num is 4
print(num)

Output:

1
2
3

🔹 continue Statement

Skips the rest of the loopʼs code for the current iteration but continues
with the next iteration.

Example:

for num in range(1, 6):

if num  3
continue # Skips the print statement for num  3
print(num)

Output:

1
2
4
5

Python Notes 28
 🔹 pass Statement

A placeholder that does nothing but allows the program to run.

Example:

for num in range(5):

if num  3
pass # Placeholder for future code
print(num)

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

Data Structures in Python

5. Data Structures in Python

Python provides built-in data structures that allow efficient storage and
manipulation of data. The primary data structures include:

Lists Ordered, Mutable)

Tuples Ordered, Immutable)

Sets Unordered, Unique elements)

Dictionaries Key-Value pairs, Mutable)

Strings Immutable sequence of characters)

5.1 Lists
Definition

Python Notes 29
 A list is an ordered, mutable (changeable) collection of items. Lists allow
duplicate elements and can store different data types in a single list.

Creating Lists

empty_list = []
numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
mixed_list = ["Python", 3.14, True, 42
nested_list = 1, 2, 3, 4

Accessing Elements

numbers = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50

print(numbers[0]) # First element: 10
print(numbers[-1]) # Last element: 50
print(numbers[14]) # Slicing: 20, 30, 40

List Methods
Method Descr iption Example

append(x) Adds x to the end [Link](6)

extend(iterable) Adds multiple elements [Link]([7, 8, 9

insert(i, x) Inserts x at index i [Link](2, 15

remove(x) Removes first occurrence of x [Link](3)

Removes and returns element at index i (last if
pop(i) [Link](1)
not provided)
Removes all elements
clear() [Link]()
Returns index of x
index(x) [Link](10)
Counts occurrences of x
count(x) [Link](5)
Sorts the list
sor t() [Link] t()
Reverses elements in-place
reverse() [Link]()
Returns a copy of the list new_list =
copy()
[Link]()

Python Notes 30
 5.2 Tuples
Definition
At upleis anordered and immutable collection. Once a tuple is created, its
elements cannot be modified.

Creating Tuples
empty_tuple = ()
single_element_tuple = 42,) # Comma required
numbers = 10, 20, 30, 40

Accessing Elements

numbers = 10, 20, 30, 40, 50

pr int(numbers[0])
pr int(numbers[-1])
pr int(numbers[13])

Tuple Methods
Method Descr iption Counts Example
count(x) occurrences of x Returns [Link](2)

index(x) index of x Returns the [Link](10)

len() length Returns max value len(tpl)

max() Returns min value Returns max(tpl)

min() sum of elements Returns min(tpl)

sum() sorted list Converts sum(tpl)

sor ted() iterable to tuple

sor ted(tpl)

tuple() tuple(lst)

5.3 Sets

Python Notes 31
 Definition
Asetisanunordered collection of unique elements.

Creating Sets

empty_set = set()
my_set = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Set Methods
Method Descr iption Example

add(x) Adds x to the set [Link](6)

remove(x) Removes x (error if not found) [Link](2)

discard(x) Removes x (no error if not found) [Link](3)

pop() clear() Removes a random element [Link]()

union(B) Removes all elements [Link]()

intersection(B) Combines two sets

[Link](B)

difference(B) Common elements

[Link](B)
Elements in A, not B
[Link](B)
Elements in either A or B but not
symmetric_difference(B) both A.symmetric_difference(B)

Returns True if A and B have no

isdisjoint(B) common elements [Link](B)

5.4 Dictionaries
Definition
Adictionaryisa key-value data structure that allows fast lookups.

Creating Dictionaries

student = {"name": "Alice", "age" 21

Python Notes 32
 Dictionary Methods
Method Descr iption Example

keys() Returns all keys [Link]()

values() Returns all values [Link]()

items() Returns key-value pairs [Link]()

Returns value of x None if not

get(x) [Link]("name")
found)
Removes key x and returns its value
pop(x) [Link]("age")
Merges dictionary B into A
update(B) [Link](new_data)
Returns value of x or sets y if not
setdefault(x, y) found [Link]("city", "NY")
Returns a copy of the dictionary
copy() new_dict = [Link]()
Creates a new dictionary with keys
fromkeys(iterable, from iterable and default values [Link](["name",
value) "age"], None)

5.5 Strings
Definition
Astringisanimmutable sequence of characters.

String Methods
Method Descr iption Example
upper() Converts to uppercase "hello".upper()

lower() Converts to lowercase "HELLO".lower()

str ip() Removes spaces " hello ".strip()

split() Splits into a list "a,b,c".split(",")

join() Joins list into a string ",".join(["a", "b", "c"])

replace(old, new) Replaces substrings "hello".replace("h", "H")

find(x) Returns index of first occurrence

"hello".find("l")

count(x) Counts occurrences of x

"hello".count("l")

Python Notes 33
 star tswith(x) Checks if string starts with x "hello".startswith("h")

endswith(x) Checks if string ends with x "hello".endswith("o")

Functions

6. Functions in Python
A function is a block of reusable code designed to perform a specific task.
Functions improve code reusability, modularity, and readability.

6.1 Defining and Calling Functions

DefiningaFunction

A function is defined using the def keyword.

def greet():
print("Hello, welcome to Python!")

# Calling the function

greet()

Function with Parameters

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(5, 3)
print(result) # Output: 8

6.2 Function Arguments

Python functions can accept different types of arguments.

1. Positional Arguments

Python Notes 34
 The most common type of argument.

Arguments are assigned based on their position.

def full_name(first, last):

print(f"Full Name: {first} {last}")

full_name("Nihar", "Dodagatta")
# Output: Full Name: Nihar Dodagatta

2. Default Arguments
Used when a function has a default value for a parameter.

If no value is provided, it uses the default.

def greet(name="Guest"):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest!

greet("Nihar") # Output: Hello, Nihar!

3. Keyword Arguments
Arguments are passed using parameter names.

Order does not matter.

def student_details(name, age, course):

print(f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}, Course: {course}")

student_details(age=22, name="Harsha", course="CS")

# Output: Name: Harsha, Age: 22, Course: CS

4. Arbitrary Arguments (args, *kwargs )

args (Multiple Positional Arguments)

Python Notes 35
 Allows passing multiple positional arguments as a tuple.

def sum_numbers(*numbers):
total = sum(numbers)
print(f"Sum: {total}")

sum_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5
# Output: Sum: 15

*kwargs (Multiple Keyword Arguments)

Allows passing multiple keyword arguments as a dictionary.

def display_info(**info):
for key, value in [Link]():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

display_info(name="Vasanta", age=24, city="Chennai")

# Output:
# name: Vasanta
# age: 24
# city: Chennai

6.3 Returning Values from Functions

A function can return values using the return statement.

def square(num):
return num * num

result = square(6)
print(result) # Output: 36

Returning Multiple Values

Python Notes 36
 A function can return multiple values as a tuple.

def calculate(a, b):

return a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b

add, sub, mul, div = calculate(10, 5

print(add, sub, mul, div)
# Output: 15 5 50 2.0

6.4 Scope and Lifetime of Variables

Local Scope Variables defined inside a function exist only within that
function.
Global Scope Variables defined outside all functions can be accessed
anywhere.

x  10 # Global variable

def my_function():
x  5 # Local variable
print("Inside function:", x)

my_function()
print("Outside function:", x)

# Output:
# Inside function: 5
# Outside function: 10

Using global Keyword

Modify a global variable inside a function.

Python Notes 37
 x  10

def modify():
global x
x  20

modify()
print(x) # Output: 20

6.5 Recursive Functions

A recursive function calls itself to solve a problem.

Factorial Using Recursion

def factorial(n):
if n  0
return 1
return n * factorial(n  1

pr int(factor ial(5))
# Output: 120

Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

def fibonacci(n):
if n  0
return 0
elif n  1
return 1
else:
return fibonacci(n  1  fibonacci(n  2

Python Notes 38
 pr int(fibonacci(6))
# Output: 8

6.6 Anonymous (Lambda) Functions

A lambda function is a small, anonymous function that can take any number
of arguments but has only one expression.

Syntax

lambda arguments: expression

Lambda Function Example

square = lambda x: x * x
print(square(5)) # Output: 25

Lambda Function with Multiple Arguments

add = lambda a, b: a + b
print(add(3, 4)) # Output: 7

Using lambda with map() , filter() , reduce()

1. map() Function
Applies a function to all elements in an iterable.

numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 squared_numbers =

list(map(lambda x: x**2, numbers)) pr int(squared_
numbers) # Output: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25

2. filter() Function

Python Notes 39
 Filters elements based on a condition.

numbers = 10, 15, 21, 30, 45 odd_numbers =

list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 ! 0, numbers)) pr int(odd_
numbers) # Output: 15, 21, 45

3. reduce() Function (Requires functools )

Performs cumulative operations.

from functools import reduce

numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
sum_all = reduce(lambda a, b: a + b, numbers)
pr int(sum_all)
# Output: 15

Modules

7. Modules in Python
A module in Python is a file containing Python code (functions, classes, and
variables) that can be imported and reused in other programs. Modules help in
organizing code into separate files, improving readability and maintainability.
A module file has a .py extension.

7.1 Understanding Modules in Python

Python provides two types of modules:

 Built-in Modules Pre-installed modules like math, random, os, etc.

 User-defined Modules Custom modules created by programmers.

Why Use Modules?

Code Reusability Avoids rewriting the same code multiple times.

Python Notes 40
 Organized Structure Breaks large programs into smaller, manageable
files.
Namespace Management Helps prevent variable and function name
conflicts.

7.2 Importing Modules

Python provides different ways to import and use modules.

1. Using import
The import statement is used to import a module.

import math

print([Link](25)) # Output: 5.0

print([Link]) # Output: 3.141592653589793

2. Using from ... import

This allows importing specific functions or variables from a module.

from math import sqrt, pi

print(sqrt(36)) # Output: 6.0

print(pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793

3. Using as (Alias)
You can give a module or function an alias using as .

import math as m

print([Link](5)) # Output: 120

4. Importing Everything Using

Python Notes 41
 This imports all functions and variables from a module.

from math import *

print(sin(0)) # Output: 0.0

print(pow(2, 3)) # Output: 8.0

⚠ Warning: Avoid using * as it can cause namespace conflicts.

7.3 Creating and Using Custom Modules

You can create your own Python module.

Step 1: Create a Module ([Link] )

# [Link]
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"

def add(a, b):

return a + b

Step 2: Import and Use the Module

Save [Link] in the same directory as your script.

import mymodule

print([Link]("Nihar")) # Output: Hello, Nihar!

print([Link](5, 3)) # Output: 8

7.4 Standard Library Modules

Python provides a rich set of built-in modules.

1. math Module (Mathematical Functions)

Python Notes 42
 import math

print([Link](16)) # Output: 4.0

print([Link](5)) # Output: 120
print(math.log10100 # Output: 2.0
print([Link]([Link]/2 # Output: 1.0

2. random Module (Random Number Generation)

import random

print([Link](1, 10 # Random integer between 1 and 10

print([Link](["Python", "Java", "C"])) # Random choice from li
st
print([Link](1.5, 3.5 # Random float between 1.5 and 3.5

3. datetime Module (Date and Time Handling)

import datetime

now = [Link]()
print(now) # Output: 20250219 123456.789123

print([Link]("%Y%m-%d %H%M%S")) # Output: 20250219 12

3456

4. os Module (Operating System Interactions)

import os

print([Link]()) # Get current working directory

print([Link]()) # List files in the current directory

Python Notes 43
 5. time Module (Time-Related Functions)

import time

print("Wait for 3 seconds...")

[Link](3) # Pauses execution for 3 seconds
pr int("Done!")

6. sys Module (System-Specific Parameters and Functions)

import sys

print([Link]) # Prints Python version

print([Link]) # Prints OS platform

7. json Module (JSON Handling)

import json

data = {"name": "Nihar", "age" 25

json_data = [Link](data)
print(json_data) # Output: {"name": "Nihar", "age" 25

parsed_data = [Link](json_data)
print(parsed_data["name"]) # Output: Nihar

8. csv Module (Handling CSV Files)

import csv

with open("[Link]", mode="w", newline="") as file:

writer = [Link](file)

Python Notes 44
 [Link](["Name", "Age"])
[Link](["Nihar", 25

9. re Module (Regular Expressions)

import re

pattern = r"\\d+"
text = "There are 15 cats and 3 dogs."

matches = [Link](pattern, text)

print(matches) # Output: ['15', '3']

10. urllib Module (Web Requests)

import [Link]

response = [Link]("<[Link]
print([Link]) # Output: 200

7.5 The sys Module and Command-line Arguments

The sys module allows handling command-line arguments.

Example: [Link]
Save the following code in scr [Link] :

import sys

print("Arguments:", [Link])

Run the script in the terminal:

Python Notes 45
 python [Link] hello world

Output:

Arguments: ['[Link]', 'hello', 'world']

[Link][0]  Script name

[Link][1]  Passed arguments

7.6 Using pip to Install External Modules

Python has third-party libraries that can be installed using pip .

Checking Installed Modules

pip list

Installing a Module

pip install requests

Uninstalling a Module

pip uninstall requests

Using an Installed Module ( requests )

import requests

response = [Link]("<[Link]
print([Link]()) # Output: JSON response from GitHub API

File Handling

Python Notes 46
 8. File Handling in Python
Pythonprovidesbuilt-in functions andmodules towork with files. Using file
handling, we can read, write, and modify files stored on disk.

8.1 Opening and Closing Files

Python provides the open() function to open files.

Syntax:

file = open("filename", "mode")

"filename"  Name of the file (with extension).

"mode"  Specifies how the file will be opened.

Opening a File

file = open("[Link]", "r") # Opens file in read mode

Closing a File
Always close a file after performing operations to free system resources.

[Link]()

Best Practice: Use with Statement

The with statement automatically closes the file after use.

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

data = [Link]()

8.2 Reading and Writing Files

Python provides various methods to read and write data in files.

Python Notes 47
 Reading a File ( read() , readline() , readlines() )

# Example file: [Link]

# Content:
# Hello, Python!
# Welcome to file handling.

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

content = [Link]() # Reads entire file
print(content)

Other Read Methods:

read(size) Reads a specific number of characters.

readline() Reads one line at a time.

readlines() Reads all lines and returns them as a list.

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

print([Link]()) # Reads first line
print([Link]()) # Reads remaining lines as a list

Writing to a File ( write() , writelines() )

Overwriting a File ( w mode)

with open("[Link]", "w") as file:

[Link]("New content added!\\n")

Warning: This erases existing content.

Appending to a File (a mode)

with open("[Link]", "a") as file:

[Link]("Appending a new line.\\n")

Python Notes 48
 Appends data without deleting existing content.

Writing Multiple Lines ( writelines() )

lines = ["Line 1\\n", "Line 2\\n", "Line 3\\n"]

with open("[Link]", "w") as file:
[Link](lines)

8.3 File Modes

Python supports multiple file modes to control how a file is opened.

Mode Descr iption Read (default)  Error if file doesnʼt exist Write  Creates

r file if not exists, overwrites existing content Append  Adds new data,

w doesnʼt delete existing content Read and Write  Raises error if file

a doesnʼt exist Read and Write  Creates file if not exists, overwrites

r+ existing content Read and Append  Creates file if not exists Read in

w+
Binary mode Write in Binary mode Append in Binary mode

a+

rb

wb

ab

Example: Reading and Writing in Binary Mode

with open("[Link]", "rb") as file:

binary_data = [Link]()

with open("[Link]", "wb") as file:

[Link](binary_data)

8.4 Working with CSV Files ( csv Module)

Python Notes 49
 CSV Comma-Separated Values) files store tabular data in plain text.

1. Writing to a CSV File

import csv

with open("[Link]", "w", newline="") as file:

writer = [Link](file)
[Link](["Name", "Age", "City"])
[Link](["Nihar", 25, "Hyderabad"])
[Link](["Harsha", 24, "Bangalore"])

2. Reading a CSV File

import csv

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

reader = [Link](file)
for row in reader:
print(row)

3. Writing and Reading CSV with Dictionary

import csv

# Writing Dictionary Data

with open("[Link]", "w", newline="") as file:
fieldnames = ["Name", "Age", "City"]
writer = [Link](file, fieldnames=fieldnames)
[Link]()
[Link]({"Name": "Nihar", "Age" 25, "City": "Hyderabad"})
[Link]({"Name": "Harsha", "Age" 24, "City": "Bangalore"})

# Reading Dictionary Data

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

Python Notes 50
 reader = [Link](file)
forrow in reader:
print(row["Name"], row["Age"], row["City"])

8.5 Handling JSON Data ( json Module)

JSON JavaScript Object Notation) is used to store and exchange structured
data.

1. Writing JSON Data

import json

data = {
"name": "Nihar",
"age" 25,
"city": "Hyderabad"
}

with open("[Link]", "w") as file:

[Link](data, file, indent=4

2. Reading JSON Data

import json

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:

data = [Link](file)

print(data["name"]) # Output: Nihar

3. Converting Python Dictionary to JSON String

Python Notes 51
 import json

data = {"name": "Nihar", "age" 25

json_string = [Link](data, indent=4
pr int( json_str ing)

4. Converting JSON String to Python Dictionary

import json

json_string = '{"name": "Nihar", "age" 25'

data = [Link](json_string)
print(data["name"]) # Output: Nihar

Exception Handling

9. Exception Handling in Python

Exception handling allows a program to gracefully handle errors instead of
crashing. Python provides mechanisms to catch and handle errors using the
try-except block.

9.1 Understanding Errors in Python

Errors in Python can be broadly classified into:

 Syntax Errors  Occur when the Python interpreter cannot understand the
code.

 Exceptions Runtime Errors)  Occur during execution due to invalid

operations.

Example: Syntax Error

Python Notes 52
 # Missing colon in 'if' statement SyntaxError)
if True
print("Hello")

Example: Exception (Runtime Error)

# Division by zero error ZeroDivisionError)

result  10 / 0

Common Built-in Exceptions

Exception Descr iption

ZeroDivisionError Raised when dividing by zero

ValueError Raised when a function gets an incorrect argument

TypeError Raised when an operation is performed on an invalid type

IndexEr ror Raised when trying to access an out-of-range index in a list

KeyError
Raised when a dictionary key is not found
Raised when attempting to open a non-existent file
FileNotFoundError

9.2 Using try and except Blocks

The try block allows Python to execute error-prone code, while the except

block handles the error if one occurs.

Basic Example

try:
result  10 / 0 # Code that may raise an error
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Error: Cannot divide by zero!")

Output:

Python Notes 53
 Error: Cannot divide by zero!

9.3 Handling Multiple Exceptions

A program can encounter different types of exceptions, and we can handle
them separately.

Example: Handling Multiple Exceptions

try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: ")) # May raise ValueError
result  10 / num # May raise ZeroDivisionError
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Error: Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Error: Invalid input! Please enter a valid integer.")

Catching Multiple Exceptions in One Except Block

try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result  10 / num
except ZeroDivisionError, ValueError) as e:
print("An error occurred:", e)

9.4 The finally Block

The finally block always executes, regardless of whether an exception
occurred.
It is used to release resources (e.g., closing a file, closing a database
connection).

Example: Using finally

Python Notes 54
 try:
file = open("[Link]", "r")
content = [Link]()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("Error: File not found!")
finally:
print("Closing file...")
[Link]() # Ensuring the file is closed

9.5 Raising Custom Exceptions ( raise keyword)

Python allows manually raising exceptions using the raise keyword.

Example: Raising an Exception

age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

if age  18
raise ValueError("You must be at least 18 years old.")

Output (if age  18

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "[Link]", line 3, in <module>
ValueError: You must be at least 18 years old.

Defining Custom Exceptions

We can define our own exceptions by creating a subclass of Exception .

class NegativeNumberError(Exception):
"""Custom exception for negative numbers"""
pass

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

Python Notes 55
 if num  0
raise NegativeNumberError("Negative numbers are not allowed!")

Object-Oriented Programming OOP

10. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

in Python
Object-Oriented Programming OOP is a programming paradigm based on the
concept of objects, which contain data (attributes) and behavior (methods).
Python is highly object-oriented, meaning everything in Python is an object,
including numbers, strings, functions, and classes.

10.1 Understanding Classes and Objects

Class  A blueprint for creating objects.

Object  An instance of a class.

Example: Creating a Class and an Object

class Car:
brand = "Toyota"

# Creating an object (instance) of the Car class

car1  Car()
print([Link]) # Output: Toyota

10.2 Defining and Using a Class ( __init__

Constructor)
The __init__ method is a special method (constructor) that initializes object
attributes.

Example: Using __init__

Python Notes 56
 class Car:
def __init__(self, brand, model):
[Link] = brand # Instance variable
[Link] = model # Instance variable

# Creating objects
car1  Car("Toyota", "Corolla")
car2  Car("Honda", "Civic")

print([Link], [Link]) # Output: Toyota Corolla

print([Link], [Link]) # Output: Honda Civic

10.3 Instance and Class Variables

InstanceVariables

Defined inside the __init__ method.

Specific to each object.

Class Variables
Shared among all instances of the class.

Defined outside __init__.

Example: Instance vs. Class Variables

class Employee:
company = "TechCorp" # Class variable

def __init__(self, name, salary):

[Link] = name # Instance variable
[Link] = salary # Instance variable

emp1  Employee("Alice", 50000

Python Notes 57
 emp2  Employee("Bob", 60000

print([Link]) # Output: TechCorp

print([Link]) # Output: TechCorp

# Changing class variable

[Link] = "NewTech"

print([Link]) # Output: NewTech

print([Link]) # Output: NewTech

10.4 Inheritance and Types of Inheritance

Inheritance allows a class to derive properties and methods from another
class, promoting code reusability.

Types of Inheritance in Python

 Single Inheritance  One class inherits from another.

 Multiple Inheritance  A class inherits from multiple classes.

 Multilevel Inheritance  A class inherits from a derived class.

 Hierarchical Inheritance  Multiple classes inherit from a single parent.

 Hybrid Inheritance  Combination of multiple inheritance types.

Example: Single Inheritance

class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal makes a sound")

class Dog(Animal): # Inheriting from Animal

def speak(self):
print("Dog barks")

Python Notes 58
 dog  Dog()
[Link]() # Output: Dog barks

10.5 Method Overriding and Polymorphism

MethodOverriding

A subclass redefines a method from its parent class.

Example: Method Overriding

class Parent:
def show(self):
print("This is the parent class")

class Child(Parent):
def show(self):
print("This is the child class")

obj  Child()
[Link]() # Output: This is the child class

Polymorphism
Allows different objects to be treated as instances of the same class
through method overriding or duck typing.

Example: Polymorphism

class Bird:
def fly(self):
print("Birds can fly")

class Penguin(Bird):
def fly(self):

Python Notes 59
 print("Penguins cannot fly")

def flying_test(bird):
[Link]()

sparrow  Bird()
penguin  Penguin()

flying_test(sparrow) # Output: Birds can fly

flying_test(penguin) # Output: Penguins cannot fly

10.6 Encapsulation and Abstraction

Encapsulation

Hides internal implementation using private variables.

Private attributes are prefixed with __ (double underscore).

Example: Encapsulation

class BankAccount:
def __init__(self, balance):
self.__balance = balance # Private variable

def deposit(self, amount):

self.__balance += amount

def get_balance(self):
return self.__balance

account  BankAccount(1000)
[Link](500)
print(account.get_balance()) # Output: 1500

Python Notes 60
 # Accessing private variable directly raises an error
# print(account.__balance) # AttributeError

Abstraction
Hides complex details from the user using abstract classes.

Example: Abstraction using ABC module

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Animal(ABC): # Abstract class

@abstractmethod
def sound(self):
pass

class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
return "Bark"

class Cat(Animal):
def sound(self):
return "Meow"

dog  Dog()
cat  Cat()

print([Link]()) # Output: Bark

print([Link]()) # Output: Meow

10.7 Magic Methods ( __str__ , __len__ , etc.)

Magic methods (also called dunder methods) in Python start and end with
double underscores (__).

Python Notes 61
 Common Magic Methods
Method Descr iption

__init__(self, ...) Constructor (initialization method)

__str__(self) Returns a string representation of an object

__ len__(self) Defines behavior for len(obj)

__add__(self, other) Defines behavior for obj1  obj2

__eq__(self, other)
Defines behavior for obj1  obj2

Example: Using __str__ and __ len__

class Book:
def __init__(self, title, pages):
[Link] = title
[Link] = pages

def __str__(self):
return f"Book: {[Link]}, Pages: {[Link]}"

def __len__(self):
return [Link]

book  Book("Python Programming", 450

print(book) # Output: Book: Python Programming, Pages: 450
print(len(book)) # Output: 450

Python Libraries Overview

11. Python Libraries Overview

Python provides a vast collection of libraries that simplify complex tasks such
as data analysis, machine learning, web scraping, automation, and database
management. Below is a structured overview of some of the most commonly
used libraries.

Python Notes 62
 11.1 Data Analysis Libraries
NumPy (Numerical Python)

Used for numerical computing with multi-dimensional arrays.

Provides mathematical functions, linear algebra, and random number

generation.

Example: Working with NumPy Arrays

import numpy as np

# Creating an array
arr = [Link]([1, 2, 3, 4, 5
print(arr) # Output: 1 2 3 4 5

# Reshaping an array
arr2D  [Link](1, 5)
print(arr2D # Output: 1 2 3 4 5

# Performing mathematical operations

arr_squared = arr ** 2
print(arr_squared) # Output: 1 4 9 16 25

Pandas (Data Manipulation and Analysis)

Provides DataFrame and Series structures to work with structured data.

Supports reading/writing CSV, Excel, SQL, and JSON files.

Example: Creating a DataFrame

import pandas as pd

# Creating a DataFrame
data = {'Name': ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Charlie'], 'Age': 25, 30, 35

Python Notes 63
 df = [Link](data)

# Display the first few rows

print([Link]())

# Reading a CSV file

df = pd.read_csv("[Link]")

# Selecting a column
pr int(df['Name'])

11.2 Data Visualization

Matplotlib(BasicandAdvanced Plotting)

Provides 2D and 3D plotting capabilities.

Supports line charts, bar plots, histograms, scatter plots.

Example: Line Plot

import [Link] as plt

x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
y = 10, 20, 25, 30, 40

[Link](x, y, marker='o') pl
[Link]("X-axis")
[Link]("Y-axis")
[Link]("Line Plot Example")
[Link]()

Seaborn (Statistical Data Visualization)

Built on Matplotlib, it provides more aesthetically pleasing plots.

Python Notes 64
 Supports heatmaps, pair plots, violin plots, and more.

Example: Creating a Heatmap

import seaborn as sns

import numpy as np

# Creating a random dataset

data = [Link](5, 5)

# Creating a heatmap
[Link](data, annot=True, cmap="coolwarm")
[Link]()

11.3 Machine Learning

Scikit-learn (Machine Learning)
A powerful library for classification, regression, clustering, and model
evaluation.
Supports decision trees, random forests, SVMs, and neural networks.

Example: Linear Regression

from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression

import numpy as np

# Creating sample data

X  [Link]([[1], 2, 3, 4, 5
y = [Link]([2, 4, 6, 8, 10

# Training the model

model  LinearRegression()
[Link](X, y)

Python Notes 65
 # Predicting a new value
print([Link]([[6]])) # Output: 12.]

11.4 Web Scraping

Requests(FetchingWeb Pages)

Used to send HTTP requests to fetch web pages.

Example: Fetching a Web Page

import requests

response = [Link]("<[Link]
print([Link]) # Prints the HTML content of the page

BeautifulSoup (Parsing HTML & XML)

Helps extract data from HTML pages efficiently.

Example: Extracting Titles from a Web Page

from bs4 import BeautifulSoup

html = "<html><head><title>Sample Page</title></head><body></body

></html>"
soup  BeautifulSoup(html, "[Link]")

print([Link]) # Output: Sample Page

11.5 Automation
Selenium(Automating Browsers)

Python Notes 66
 Automates browser actions such as clicking buttons, filling forms, and
navigating pages.

Example: Automating Google Search

from selenium import webdriver

from [Link] import Keys

# Open Chrome browser

driver = [Link]()

# Open Google
[Link]("<[Link]

# Search for "Python"

search_box = driver.find_element("name", "q")
search_box.send_keys("Python")
search_ box.send_ keys([Link]

# Close the browser

[Link]()

11.6 Working with Databases

SQLite (Lightweight Database)
Embedded database used in mobile and small-scale applications.

Example: Creating a Database and Table

import sqlite3

conn = [Link]("[Link]") # Create or open a database

cursor = [Link]()

Python Notes 67
 # Creating a table
[Link]("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (id INTEGER PRIMA
RY KEY, name TEXT"

# Inserting data
[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES 'Alice')")
[Link]()

# Retrieving data
[Link]("SELECT * FROM users")
print([Link]()) # Output: 1, 'Alice')]

[Link]()

MySQL (Relational Database Management System - RDBMS)

Used for scalable database solutions.

Requires the MySQL connector to interact with databases.

Example: Connecting to MySQL Database

import [Link]

conn = [Link](
host="localhost",
user="root",
password="password",
database="testdb"
)

cursor = [Link]()

# Creating a table
[Link]("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (id INT AUTO_INCRE
MENT PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR100"

Python Notes 68
 # Inserting data
[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES 'Alice')")
[Link]()

# Retrieving data
[Link]("SELECT * FROM users")
pr int([Link]())

[Link]()

Working with APIs

12. Working with APIs in Python

APIs Application Programming Interfaces) allow applications to communicate
and exchange data. Python provides powerful tools for interacting with
RESTful APIs, fetching data, and even creating your own APIs.

12.1 Understanding APIs and RESTful Services

APIs allow different applications to communicate using predefined rules.

RESTful APIs follow the REST Representational State Transfer)

architecture, using HTTP methods such as:

GET  Retrieve data

POST  Send data

PUT  Update data

DELETE  Remove data

Example of a REST API endpoint:

[Link]

This may return data in JSON format, like:

Python Notes 69
 {
"id" 1,
"name": "Alice",
"email": "alice@[Link]"
}

12.2 Making HTTP Requests ( requests module)

Pythonʼs requests module allows us to send HTTP requests and interact with
APIs.

Installing the requests module

pip install requests

Example: Making a GET Request

import requests

# Sending a GET request to an API

response = [Link]("[Link]

# Checking if the request was successful

if response.status_code  200
print([Link]()) # Prints the response in JSON format
else:
print("Failed to retrieve data")

Example: Sending a POST Request

import requests

url = "[Link]

Python Notes 70
 # Data to send
data = {
"title": "New Post",
"body": "This is a sample post",
"userId" 1
}

# Sending POST request

response = [Link](url, json=data)

print([Link]()) # Output: Created post details

12.3 Parsing JSON Data ( json module)

APIs often return data in JSON format. Pythonʼs json module helps parse and
manipulate this data.

Example: Parsing JSON Response

import json

json_data = '{"name": "Alice", "age" 25, "city": "New York"}'

# Convert JSON string to Python dictionary

data = [Link](json_data)
print(data["name"]) # Output: Alice

Example: Converting Python Data to JSON

import json

python_dict = {"name": "Bob", "age" 30, "city": "Los Angeles"}

# Convert dictionary to JSON string

Python Notes 71
 json_output = [Link](python_dict, indent=4
pr int( json_output)

12.4 Working with Public APIs (OpenWeather,

GitHub API, etc.)
Python can interact with public APIs like OpenWeatherMap, GitHub API, and
more.

Example: Fetching Weather Data from OpenWeather API

import requests

api_key = "your_api_key_here"
city = "London"
url = f"[Link]
={api_ key}"

response = [Link](url)
weather_data = [Link]()

print(f"Weather in {city}: {weather_data['weather'0'description']}")

🔹 Note: You need to sign up at OpenWeather to get an API

key.

Example: Fetching GitHub User Data

import requests

username = "octocat"
url = f"[Link]

Python Notes 72
 response = [Link](url)
data = [Link]()

print(f"GitHub User: {data['login']}")

print(f"Public Repos: {data['public_repos']}")

12.5 Creating a Simple API using Flask

Pythonʼs Flask framework allows us to create our own APIs.

Installing Flask

pip install flask

Example: Creating a Simple API

from flask import Flask, jsonify

app  Flask(__name__)

# Sample data
users = [
{"id" 1, "name": "Alice"},
{"id" 2, "name": "Bob"}
]

@[Link]("/users", methods=["GET"])
def get_users():
return jsonify(users)

@[Link]("/users/<int:user_id>", methods=["GET"])
def get_user(user_id):
user = next((u for u in users if u["id"] == user_id), None)
if user:
return jsonify(user)

Python Notes 73
 return jsonify({"error": "User not found"}), 404

if __name__ == "__main__":
[Link](debug=True)

Run this script and open [Link] in your browser to see

the API response.

Web Development with Python

13. Web Development with Python

Python is widely used for web development, with frameworks like Flask and
Django making it easy to build web applications. This section focuses on
Flask, a lightweight and flexible framework.

13.1 Flask Framework

Flask is a micro web framework that provides essential tools for building web
applications without unnecessary complexity. It is ideal for small to medium-
sized applications and APIs.

Installing Flask
To install Flask, use:

pip install flask

Basic Flask Application

from flask import Flask

app  Flask(__name__)

@[Link]("/")
def home():

Python Notes 74
 return "Hello, Flask!"

if __name__ == "__main__":
[Link](debug=True)

Save this as [Link] and run python [Link].

Open [Link] in your browser to see the output.

Creating Routes and Views

Routes define the URLs of your application and map them to specific
functions.

Example: Creating Multiple Routes

from flask import Flask

app  Flask(__name__)

@[Link]("/")
def home():
return "Welcome to the Home Page"

@[Link]("/about")
def about():
return "This is the About Page"

if __name__ == "__main__":
[Link](debug=True)

Visiting [Link] will show "This is the About Page" .

Dynamic Routes
Dynamic routes allow passing parameters in URLs.

Python Notes 75
 @[Link]("/user/<name>")
def user(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"

[Link] → "Hello, Nihar!"

Handling Forms in Flask

Flask makes handling user input from forms easy.

Installing Flask-WTF (For Forms)

pip install flask-wtf

Example: Simple Form Handling

from flask import Flask, render_template, request

app  Flask(__name__)

@[Link]("/", methods=["GET", "POST"])

def index():
if [Link] == "POST":
name = [Link]["name"]
return f"Hello, {name}!"
return '''
<form method="post">
Name: <input type="text" name="name">
<input type="submit">
</form>
'''

if __name__ == "__main__":
[Link](debug=True)

Python Notes 76
 Accepts user input and returns a personalized greeting.

Python Notes 77