Environmental Science 200: Earth

Systems and Global Change

Complete Semester Notes
Course Code: ENV 200

Instructor: Dr. Michael Rodriguez

Semester: Fall 2025

Prerequisites: None (introductory course)

Module 1: Fundamentals of Environmental Science

1.1 What is Environmental Science?

Environmental science is an integrative field that applies physical, biological, and social
sciences to study the environment and solve environmental problems. It is inherently
interdisciplinary, drawing on ecology, geology, chemistry, physics, climatology, and the social
sciences.

Definition: The environment encompasses all living and nonliving things—the biotic (living) and
abiotic (nonliving) components of Earth—and their interactions.

1.2 Historical Context

1.​ 1960s-1970s: Environmental movement emerges; Silent Spring (Rachel Carson)

highlights pesticide dangers; first Earth Day (1970)
2.​ 1980s: Focus on acid rain, ozone depletion, and the Montreal Protocol (1987)
successfully protects stratospheric ozone
3.​ 1990s-2000s: Climate change becomes major focus; Kyoto Protocol (1997) addresses
greenhouse gases
4.​ 2010s-Present: Sustainable development goals, circular economy, and climate action
accelerate

1.3 Major Environmental Issues

1.​ Climate Change: Primarily caused by greenhouse gas emissions; affects all Earth
systems
 2.​ Biodiversity Loss: Species extinction rates 100-1000 times natural background rate
3.​ Pollution: Air, water, and soil contamination from industrial and agricultural sources
4.​ Deforestation: ~10 million hectares lost annually; reduces carbon sinks and biodiversity
5.​ Freshwater Depletion: Groundwater aquifers being depleted faster than they recharge
6.​ Ocean Acidification: CO2 dissolution lowering ocean pH, threatening marine
organisms

1.4 Sustainability Principles

Sustainability: Development that meets the needs of present generations without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The three pillars of sustainability:

1.​ Environmental: Protecting ecosystems and natural resources

2.​ Social: Ensuring justice, equity, and community well-being
3.​ Economic: Maintaining prosperity while reducing resource consumption

Module 2: Energy Flow and Biogeochemical Cycles

2.1 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

The First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
from one form to another.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics: In any energy transformation, the total amount of
disorder (entropy) in the universe increases.

Solar Energy Input:

1.​ The Sun provides approximately 170 petawatts of solar energy to Earth
2.​ About 30% is reflected back to space by atmosphere and surface
3.​ About 50% is absorbed by the surface and warms it
4.​ About 20% drives the hydrologic cycle (evaporation)
5.​ Only about 0.1% is captured by photosynthesis to power life

2.2 Trophic Levels and Energy Transfer

Trophic Level: A feeding level in a food chain or food web, such as producers, primary
consumers, or secondary consumers.

The 10% Rule: On average, only about 10% of the energy available at one trophic level is
passed to the next level. The remaining 90% is lost as heat, used in metabolic processes, or
remains in unconsumed biomass.
Trophic Levels:

1.​ Producers (Autotrophs): Plants and algae that capture solar energy through
photosynthesis
2.​ Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Animals that eat plants; examples include rabbits,
deer, grasshoppers
3.​ Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Animals that eat herbivores; examples include
wolves, hawks, snakes
4.​ Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Animals that eat other carnivores
5.​ Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break down dead organic matter, returning
nutrients to soil

Energy Pyramid: A graphical representation showing that each trophic level contains less
energy than the one below it.

2.3 The Carbon Cycle

Carbon cycles between the atmosphere, oceans, land, and living organisms over timescales
ranging from years to millions of years.

Key Processes:

1.​ Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + light energy → glucose + O2 (removes carbon from
atmosphere)
2.​ Respiration: Glucose + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy (returns carbon to atmosphere)
3.​ Combustion: Burning of fossil fuels rapidly releases stored carbon
4.​ Decomposition: Organisms breaking down dead matter release CO2
5.​ Fossilization: Over millions of years, organic matter becomes coal, oil, and natural gas

Ocean Carbon Cycling:

1.​ The ocean absorbs ~25% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions

2.​ Dissolved CO2 forms carbonic acid, lowering pH (ocean acidification)
3.​ Photosynthetic plankton (phytoplankton) remove CO2 from surface waters
4.​ Dead organisms sink to the deep ocean (biological pump), storing carbon for centuries

2.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is essential for proteins and nucleic acids, but atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is relatively
unavailable to most organisms.

Key Processes:

1.​ Nitrogen Fixation: Specialized bacteria convert atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH3);

occurs in soil, root nodules of legumes, and oceans; also artificially produced in the
Haber-Bosch process for fertilizers
 2.​ Nitrification: Bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrite (NO2-) and then nitrate (NO3-), forms
available to plants
3.​ Assimilation: Plants take up nitrate and incorporate it into proteins and nucleic acids
4.​ Denitrification: Specialized bacteria convert nitrate back to atmospheric N2, completing
the cycle
5.​ Ammonification: Decomposers break down organic nitrogen, releasing ammonia

Human Impact:

1.​ The Haber-Bosch process for synthetic fertilizer production has doubled the amount of
reactive nitrogen in the environment
2.​ Agricultural fertilizer runoff causes eutrophication—excessive algal growth depleting
oxygen in aquatic systems
3.​ Combustion produces nitrogen oxides (NOx), contributing to smog and acid rain

2.5 The Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is essential for ATP and nucleic acids; unlike carbon and nitrogen, it has no
significant atmospheric phase.

Key Processes:

1.​ Weathering: Rock weathering releases phosphate minerals

2.​ Plant Uptake: Plants absorb phosphate from soil
3.​ Food Chain Transfer: Phosphorus passes through food chains
4.​ Return to Soil: Decomposition and animal waste return phosphorus to soil
5.​ Sedimentation: Phosphorus in aquatic systems settles to sediment, becoming
unavailable for long periods
6.​ Geological Uplift: Over millions of years, marine sediments are uplifted, exposing
phosphorus-containing rocks

Human Impact: Phosphate mining for fertilizers has accelerated the phosphorus cycle, causing
eutrophication similar to excess nitrogen.

2.6 The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle

Key Processes:

1.​ Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, and soil transforms to water vapor, driven by
solar energy
2.​ Transpiration: Plants release water vapor through leaves
3.​ Condensation: Water vapor cools and forms clouds
4.​ Precipitation: Water falls as rain or snow
5.​ Infiltration: Water soaks into soil
6.​ Runoff: Water flows over land surface toward streams and rivers
 7.​ Groundwater Flow: Water percolates through soil layers; can take decades to centuries
to reach aquifers

Human Impact:

1.​ Groundwater depletion: Many aquifers are being depleted faster than they recharge
2.​ Altered precipitation patterns due to climate change
3.​ Pollution of both surface and groundwater
4.​ Reduced streamflow due to water withdrawals for agriculture and industry
5.​ Key Points:Biogeochemical cycles connect living systems (biotic) with nonliving
systems (abiotic)
6.​ Human activities have dramatically accelerated many cycles (carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus)
7.​ Disrupting these cycles can have cascading effects throughout ecosystems

Module 3: Ecosystems and Biodiversity

3.1 Ecosystem Structure and Function

Ecosystem: A biological community of interacting organisms and the abiotic (nonliving)

environment with which they interact. Ecosystems exchange energy and matter with
surrounding systems.

Ecosystem Components:

1.​ Biotic Factors: All living organisms including plants, animals, fungi, bacteria
2.​ Abiotic Factors: Nonliving physical and chemical components including climate, soil,
water, light, atmosphere
3.​ Interactions: Predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism

3.2 Population Dynamics

Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same geographic area.

Population Growth Models:

1.​ Exponential Growth: Population grows without limitation; Nt = N0 × e^(rt); rarely occurs
in nature due to limiting factors
2.​ Logistic Growth: Population growth slows as it approaches carrying capacity; more
realistic for natural populations
3.​ Carrying Capacity (K): The maximum population size that an environment can sustain

Factors Affecting Populations:

 1.​ Density-Dependent Factors: Effects increase with population density (competition,
predation, disease)
2.​ Density-Independent Factors: Effects independent of population density (weather,
natural disasters)

3.3 Community Ecology: Interactions Between Species

Competition: Two or more species use the same resource; generally results in one species
excluding another (competitive exclusion principle) unless they partition the resource through
niche differentiation.

Predation: One organism (predator) kills and consumes another (prey); predator-prey cycles
can occur with each population lagging behind the other.

Mutualism: Both organisms benefit; examples include flowering plants and pollinators,
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legumes.

Parasitism: One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of another (host); parasites
reduce host fitness but rarely kill hosts (which would reduce parasite survival).

Commensalism: One organism benefits while the other is unaffected; example: birds nesting in
trees.

3.4 Succession and Community Change

Succession: A gradual change in the species composition of a community over time, typically
following disturbance or during initial colonization.

Primary Succession: Begins in areas with no soil (e.g., bare rock after glaciers retreat);
pioneer species like lichens and mosses gradually build soil; slower process (decades to
centuries).

Secondary Succession: Begins after disturbance in areas with existing soil (e.g., after fire or
logging); faster than primary succession (years to decades) due to existing soil and propagules.

Climax Community: The relatively stable final community toward which succession leads;
assumed to be stable, though modern ecologists recognize that disturbance is normal and
prevents true climax.

3.5 Biodiversity

Types of Diversity:

1.​ Genetic Diversity: Variation in genes within a population; enables adaptation to

changing conditions
 2.​ Species Diversity: Number of different species in an area; often measured as richness
(number of species) or evenness (how evenly distributed abundances are)
3.​ Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of different ecosystem types within a region

Biodiversity Hotspots: Regions with high species diversity and significant endemism (species
found nowhere else); examples include tropical rainforests, coral reefs, Madagascar.

Biodiversity Loss Causes:

1.​ Habitat loss (the primary driver)

2.​ Overexploitation of species
3.​ Invasive species competition and predation
4.​ Pollution
5.​ Climate change
6.​ Disease

The Sixth Mass Extinction: Current extinction rate (~1000 species per year) is 100-1000 times
the natural background rate; this is primarily human-caused, distinguishing it from previous
mass extinctions.

3.6 Ecological Services

Ecosystems provide valuable services that support human civilization:

1.​ Provisioning Services: Direct material benefits including food, fresh water, timber,
medicines
2.​ Regulating Services: Processes that regulate environmental conditions including
climate regulation, water purification, pollination, pest control
3.​ Supporting Services: Basic processes that support all life including nutrient cycling, soil
formation, photosynthesis
4.​ Cultural Services: Nonmaterial benefits including recreation, spiritual values, scientific
knowledge
5.​ Key Points:Biodiversity provides ecosystem resilience—more diverse ecosystems
better withstand disturbance
6.​ Species are interconnected in complex networks; loss of one species can have
cascading effects
7.​ Conservation requires protecting not just individual species but whole ecosystems

Module 4: Soil and Terrestrial Resources

4.1 Soil Formation and Composition

Soil is a complex mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air; it takes centuries to
form.
Soil Formation Process:

1.​ Weathering: Physical and chemical breakdown of parent rock

2.​ Organic Matter Accumulation: Plant and animal remains decompose, adding organic
matter
3.​ Soil Profile Development: Over time, distinct layers (horizons) form

Soil Horizons:

1.​ O Horizon (Organic): Surface layer of decomposing organic matter; rich in humus
2.​ A Horizon (Topsoil): Darkest layer; rich in organic matter and minerals; supports most
plant growth
3.​ E Horizon (Eluviation): Light-colored layer where materials are leached downward
4.​ B Horizon (Subsoil): Layer where leached materials accumulate; less organic matter
5.​ C Horizon (Parent Material): Weathered parent rock; little biological activity
6.​ R Horizon (Bedrock): Unweathered parent rock

4.2 Soil Properties and Types

Soil Texture: The proportion of sand (largest particles), silt, and clay (smallest particles);
determines water-holding capacity and nutrient availability. Loam (balanced mixture) is ideal for
agriculture.

Soil Structure: The arrangement of particles into aggregates; good structure improves water
infiltration and root penetration.

Soil Chemistry:

1.​ pH: Acidity or alkalinity; most plants prefer slightly acidic soils (pH 6-7)
2.​ Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): Ability to hold and exchange nutrients; clay and
organic matter increase CEC
3.​ Nutrient Content: Concentration of N, P, K, and other essential elements

4.3 Soil Degradation

Soil Degradation: Decline in soil quality and productivity, often irreversible on human
timescales.

Types of Degradation:

1.​ Erosion: Loss of topsoil through water or wind; accelerated by deforestation and
plowing; ~24 billion tons lost annually
2.​ Salinization: Accumulation of salt in soil; caused by irrigation in arid regions; reduces
plant growth
3.​ Compaction: Soil pressing reduces pore space; caused by heavy machinery; reduces
water infiltration and root penetration
 4.​ Acidification: Lowering of soil pH; caused by acid rain and intensive agriculture
5.​ Contamination: Pollution with heavy metals, pesticides, or other toxic substances

4.4 Sustainable Soil Management

1.​ Conservation Tillage: Reducing or eliminating plowing to minimize erosion and

preserve soil structure
2.​ Cover Crops: Growing crops between cash crops to reduce erosion and increase
organic matter
3.​ Crop Rotation: Alternating different crops to reduce pests and disease while
maintaining soil health
4.​ Terrace Farming: Creating level steps on hillsides to reduce runoff and erosion
5.​ Agroforestry: Integrating trees with agricultural crops for soil stabilization and additional
income

Module 5: Climate and Climate Change

5.1 The Atmosphere and Climate Basics

Atmospheric Composition (by volume):

1.​ Nitrogen (N2): 78%

2.​ Oxygen (O2): 21%
3.​ Argon (Ar): 0.93%
4.​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 0.04% (and rising; was ~0.028% in pre-industrial times)
5.​ Other trace gases: < 0.03%

Atmospheric Layers:

1.​ Troposphere: Lowest layer (0-12 km); contains 80% of air mass; where weather occurs;
temperature decreases with altitude
2.​ Stratosphere: 12-50 km altitude; contains ozone layer; temperature increases with
altitude due to ozone absorption of UV radiation
3.​ Mesosphere: 50-85 km; coldest layer; where meteors burn up
4.​ Thermosphere: Above 85 km; temperature increases with altitude

5.2 The Greenhouse Effect

The Greenhouse Effect: The warming of Earth's surface due to atmospheric gases trapping
infrared radiation. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would average about -18°C instead of
+15°C.

Key Greenhouse Gases:

 1.​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 76% of radiative forcing; primary source is fossil fuel
combustion; atmospheric concentration has increased 50% since pre-industrial times
2.​ Methane (CH4): 16% of radiative forcing; 28-34 times more potent than CO2 on a
century timescale; sources include cattle farming, rice paddies, natural gas leaks
3.​ Nitrous Oxide (N2O): 6% of radiative forcing; 265 times more potent than CO2;
primarily from agricultural fertilizers
4.​ Fluorinated Gases: 2% of radiative forcing; used in refrigeration and air conditioning

Radiative Forcing: A measure of the warming effect; measured in watts per square meter
(W/m2). Current total radiative forcing is ~2.0 W/m2 above pre-industrial levels.

5.3 Evidence for Climate Change

Observational Evidence:

1.​ Global average surface temperature has increased ~1.1°C since pre-industrial times
2.​ Warming is unevenly distributed; poles warm faster than tropics (polar amplification)
3.​ Ocean temperatures increasing; ocean has absorbed ~90% of excess heat
4.​ Sea level rising (~3.3 mm/year) due to thermal expansion and melting ice
5.​ Mountain glaciers shrinking worldwide; Arctic sea ice extent declining ~13% per decade
6.​ Spring events (flowering, migration) occurring earlier
7.​ Shifts in species ranges toward poles and higher altitudes

Atmospheric Evidence:

1.​ CO2 measured at Mauna Loa shows steady increase since 1959 (Keeling Curve)
2.​ Isotopic analysis of atmospheric CO2 confirms it comes primarily from fossil fuels
3.​ Ice core records show current CO2 levels exceed any point in the past 800,000 years

5.4 Climate Feedbacks

Positive Feedbacks (amplify warming):

1.​ Ice-Albedo Feedback: As ice melts, darker ocean/land is exposed, absorbing more
solar radiation, causing further warming
2.​ Water Vapor Feedback: Warmer atmosphere holds more water vapor; water vapor is a
greenhouse gas, causing further warming
3.​ Permafrost Feedback: Thawing permafrost releases methane and CO2, causing further
warming

Negative Feedbacks (reduce warming):

1.​ Radiation Feedback: As surface warms, it emits more infrared radiation, losing heat to
space
 2.​ Cloud Feedback: Changes in cloud cover; complex, partly positive and partly negative
depending on cloud type and altitude

5.5 Climate Models and Projections

General Circulation Models (GCMs): Complex computer models incorporating atmospheric

physics, ocean dynamics, ice sheets, and land surface processes. GCMs project future climate
under different emission scenarios.

IPCC Scenarios:

1.​ RCP 2.6: Ambitious mitigation; warming limited to ~1.5°C by 2100

2.​ RCP 4.5: Moderate mitigation; warming ~2.4°C by 2100
3.​ RCP 6.0: Limited mitigation; warming ~3.1°C by 2100
4.​ RCP 8.5: Business-as-usual emissions; warming ~4.3°C by 2100

5.6 Impacts of Climate Change

Physical Impacts:

1.​ Sea level rise threatening coastal cities and island nations
2.​ Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather (heat waves, droughts, floods,
hurricanes)
3.​ Shifts in precipitation patterns; wet regions becoming wetter, dry becoming drier
4.​ Melting of mountain glaciers affecting water availability for billions

Biological Impacts:

1.​ Species range shifts; some unable to adapt quickly enough (extinction risk)
2.​ Phenological mismatches (e.g., flowers blooming before pollinators emerge)
3.​ Coral bleaching due to ocean warming and acidification
4.​ Reduced agricultural productivity in many regions

Socioeconomic Impacts:

1.​ Food insecurity in vulnerable regions

2.​ Climate migration and displacement
3.​ Conflicts over water and resources
4.​ Disproportionate impacts on low-income populations
5.​ Key Points:Current warming is unprecedented in rate over the last 2000 years
6.​ The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) concludes with 95%+
confidence that observed warming is primarily due to human activities
7.​ Even with rapid action, some warming is already committed due to atmospheric
residence times of greenhouse gases
Module 6: Water Resources and Aquatic Ecosystems
6.1 Freshwater Resources

Distribution of Earth's Water:

1.​ Oceans: 97.5% (saltwater)

2.​ Freshwater: 2.5%
3.​ Ice caps and glaciers: 68.7% (mostly inaccessible)
4.​ Groundwater: 30.1%
5.​ Surface/Other freshwater: 1.2% (lakes, rivers, soil moisture, atmosphere)

Freshwater Availability:

1.​ Only ~0.3% of Earth's water is readily accessible to humans

2.​ ~1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water
3.​ ~2 billion people experience seasonal water scarcity
4.​ Water is unevenly distributed; some regions have abundance while others face severe
shortages

6.2 Groundwater and Aquifers

Aquifer: An underground layer of rock or sediment that contains and transmits groundwater.
Aquifers are critical freshwater sources, particularly in arid regions.

Aquifer Types:

1.​ Unconfined Aquifer: Directly recharged by precipitation; water table fluctuates

seasonally
2.​ Confined Aquifer: Overlain by impermeable rock; recharge rate very slow; more stable
but vulnerable to depletion

Groundwater Depletion:

1.​ Many major aquifers are being depleted faster than they recharge (non-renewable on
human timescales)
2.​ Ogallala Aquifer (USA): Used primarily for irrigation; being depleted at alarming rates
3.​ Impacts: Well drying up, land subsidence, saltwater intrusion in coastal areas

6.3 Rivers and Streams

River Ecosystem Functions:

1.​ Transport water and nutrients downstream

2.​ Provide habitat for diverse species
 3.​ Flood plains provide important ecosystem services (water storage, nutrient cycling,
habitat)
4.​ Transport sediment from mountains to lowlands

Human Impacts:

1.​ Dams fragmenting rivers, blocking fish migration and altering flow patterns
2.​ Water withdrawal reducing downstream flow
3.​ Pollution from agricultural and industrial sources
4.​ Channelization removing meanders and flood plains
5.​ Many major rivers (Nile, Yangtze, Colorado) no longer reach the ocean

6.4 Lakes and Wetlands

Lakes: Bodies of water surrounded by land; contain ~80% of freshwater despite covering only
~1% of land area. Lakes are vulnerable to eutrophication from nutrient pollution.

Wetlands: Transitional ecosystems between water and land; including marshes, swamps, and
bogs. Wetlands provide multiple ecological services but have been extensively drained for
agriculture.

6.5 Marine Ecosystems

Ocean Zones:

1.​ Neritic Zone: Shallow water over continental shelves; highly productive
2.​ Pelagic Zone: Open ocean; includes well-lit photic zone (photosynthesis possible) and
dark aphotic zone (no light)
3.​ Benthic Zone: Ocean floor; includes abyssal plains, trenches, and hydrothermal vents

Key Ecosystems:

1.​ Coral Reefs: Highly diverse; ~25% of marine species depend on reefs; threaten by
warming, acidification, and pollution
2.​ Kelp Forests: Highly productive; in decline due to sea urchin overgrazing and warming
3.​ Mangrove Forests: Nurseries for fish and crustaceans; being cleared for aquaculture
and development
4.​ Seagrass Beds: Trap sediment and nutrients; carbon sinks; declining due to coastal
development

Overfishing:

1.​ ~33% of fish stocks are overfished; another ~60% are fully exploited
2.​ Bottom trawling destroys benthic ecosystems
3.​ Bycatch kills dolphins, sea turtles, and other non-target species
4.​ Fish populations are collapsing (e.g., Atlantic cod)
6.6 Ocean Acidification and Warming

Ocean Acidification:

1.​ Ocean pH has decreased 0.1 units (~30% increase in acidity) since pre-industrial times
2.​ Caused by absorption of atmospheric CO2, forming carbonic acid
3.​ Impairs shell and skeleton formation in mollusks, corals, and crustaceans
4.​ Affects sensory systems of fish larvae

Ocean Warming:

1.​ Ocean temperatures increasing; thermal stratification reduces mixing and nutrient
cycling
2.​ Deoxygenation creating dead zones where fish cannot survive
3.​ Species range shifts; poleward migration of many fish species
4.​ Coral bleaching when water temperature exceeds tolerance threshold
5.​ Key Points:Water is not renewable in many places; sustainable use requires
withdrawals not exceeding recharge rates
6.​ Freshwater and marine ecosystems are interconnected; impacts in one affect the other
7.​ Ecosystem integrity requires protection of watershed functions and hydrological
connectivity

Module 7: Air Quality and Atmospheric Pollution

7.1 Air Pollution and Public Health

Air pollution causes ~7 million deaths per year globally (WHO estimate); the largest
environmental health risk.

Air Pollution: Presence of substances in the atmosphere in sufficient concentrations and

duration to cause harm to human health, ecosystems, or materials.

7.2 Major Air Pollutants

Particulate Matter (PM):

1.​ PM10 (larger particles): Travel to upper respiratory system; sources include dust, pollen,
combustion
2.​ PM2.5 (smaller particles): Penetrate deep into lungs; more harmful to health; sources
include vehicle exhaust, power plants, biomass burning
3.​ Health effects: Respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer, premature death

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx):

1.​ Primary source: Vehicle emissions and power plants

 2.​ NO converts to NO2 in atmosphere; brown gas causing respiratory effects
3.​ Precursor to ozone (tropospheric O3) formation

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):

1.​ Primary source: Coal-burning power plants and smelters

2.​ Forms sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in atmosphere
3.​ Causes acid rain; respiratory effects

Tropospheric Ozone (O3):

1.​ Secondary pollutant formed from NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
sunlight
2.​ Distinct from beneficial stratospheric ozone that protects from UV radiation
3.​ Main component of smog; damages lung function, reduces crop yields

Carbon Monoxide (CO):

1.​ Produced by incomplete combustion in vehicles and heating

2.​ Binds to hemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport to tissues
3.​ Particularly hazardous in enclosed spaces

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):

1.​ Include benzene, formaldehyde, and many others

2.​ Sources: Vehicle emissions, industrial processes, consumer products
3.​ React with NOx to form ozone and secondary organic aerosols
4.​ Many VOCs are toxic and some carcinogenic

7.3 Acid Rain

Mechanism:

1.​ SO2 and NOx from combustion are oxidized in atmosphere to H2SO4 and HNO3
2.​ These acids dissolve in precipitation (rain, snow) producing acid rain (pH < 5.6)
3.​ Downwind regions far from pollution sources are affected (transboundary pollution)

Environmental Effects:

1.​ Acidifies lakes and streams, harming fish and aquatic life
2.​ Leaches aluminum and other toxic metals from soil
3.​ Damages forests; weakens trees, making them vulnerable to pests and disease
4.​ Corrodes buildings and historical monuments

Solutions: The Montreal Protocol successfully reduced ozone-depleting substances; similar

agreements on SO2 (e.g., USA Clean Air Act) have significantly reduced acid rain.
7.4 Indoor Air Quality

Common Indoor Pollutants:

1.​ Secondhand Smoke: Contains over 7000 chemicals; causes lung cancer, heart disease
2.​ Radon: Radioactive gas from soil; leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers
3.​ Formaldehyde: From insulation, plywood, furniture; causes respiratory and eye irritation
4.​ Asbestos: Fibers from insulation and other materials; causes lung cancer and
mesothelioma
5.​ Mold: Produces allergens and toxins; causes respiratory problems

7.5 Air Pollution Control

Regulatory Approaches:

1.​ National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in USA set maximum permissible
levels
2.​ Emissions standards for vehicles and power plants
3.​ Catalytic converters reduce NOx and particulate matter from vehicles
4.​ Scrubbers remove SO2 from power plant emissions

Mitigation Strategies:

1.​ Reduce energy consumption through efficiency

2.​ Shift to cleaner energy sources (wind, solar, nuclear)
3.​ Improve public transportation to reduce vehicle emissions
4.​ Industrial pollution prevention
5.​ Key Points:Air quality has improved in developed countries due to regulations, but
worsens in developing countries due to rapid industrialization
6.​ Indoor and outdoor air quality are interconnected; outdoor pollution infiltrates buildings
7.​ Air pollution control requires multi-level approach: regulation, technology, and behavior
change

Module 8: Energy Resources and Sustainability

8.1 Energy Fundamentals

Global Energy Use:

1.​ Global primary energy consumption: ~600 exajoules (EJ) per year
2.​ Fossil fuels dominate: Oil 30%, coal 27%, natural gas 24%
3.​ Renewables: 15% (mostly hydropower and biomass)
4.​ Nuclear: 4%
Energy Return on Investment (EROI): The ratio of energy produced to energy invested in
production. Higher EROI is more efficient.

1.​ Oil: 20-30 (historically); declining as easily accessible reserves deplete

2.​ Natural gas: 10-15
3.​ Coal: 10-20
4.​ Solar PV: 5-10 (improving with technology)
5.​ Wind: 15-25
6.​ Hydropower: 25-50
7.​ Nuclear: 10-15

8.2 Fossil Fuels

Coal:

1.​ Most abundant fossil fuel; formed from ancient plants

2.​ Used primarily for electricity generation and industrial heat
3.​ Mining impacts: habitat destruction, acid mine drainage, water pollution
4.​ Combustion impacts: highest CO2 and air pollution emissions per unit energy
5.​ Coal reserves: ~150 years at current consumption

Oil (Petroleum):

1.​ Primary use: Transportation fuels; also used for plastics and chemicals
2.​ Formed from marine organisms under pressure over millions of years
3.​ Extraction impacts: drilling accidents (Deepwater Horizon), habitat disruption, spills
4.​ Combustion impacts: CO2 emissions; air pollution
5.​ Peak oil: Concern that global production has peaked or is near peak; declining easily
accessible reserves

Natural Gas:

1.​ Primary use: Electricity generation and heating

2.​ Cleaner burning than coal and oil; fewer emissions per unit energy
3.​ Extraction: Conventional drilling and fracking (hydraulic fracturing)
4.​ Impacts: Methane leakage (potent greenhouse gas), water contamination from fracking,
induced seismicity

8.3 Renewable Energy Resources

Solar Energy:

1.​ Photovoltaic (PV) Cells: Convert sunlight directly to electricity; efficiency 15-20%; costs
decreasing rapidly
2.​ Solar Thermal: Use sun's heat for water heating or electricity generation
 3.​ Advantages: Abundant, zero emissions, scalable, modular
4.​ Disadvantages: Intermittency (only when sunny), land use concerns, manufacturing
impacts, energy storage needed
5.​ Growth: Fastest growing energy source; doubling roughly every 3-4 years

Wind Energy:

1.​ Wind Turbines: Convert wind kinetic energy to electricity; efficiency 35-45%
2.​ Onshore: Cheaper; land requirements shared with agriculture
3.​ Offshore: More consistent winds; higher cost; marine ecosystem concerns
4.​ Advantages: Renewable, low emissions, land-efficient (co-use possible)
5.​ Disadvantages: Intermittency, visual/noise concerns, impacts on birds and bats

Hydroelectric Power:

1.​ Dams impound water; flowing water spins turbines

2.​ Reliability: Consistent power generation (capacity factors 40-50%)
3.​ Advantages: Renewable, low emissions, long lifespan
4.​ Disadvantages: Upfront capital intensive, dams fragment rivers, alter flow regimes, flood
habitat, methane from reservoirs

Geothermal Energy:

1.​ Heat from Earth's interior powers electricity generation and direct heating
2.​ Advantages: Renewable, reliable, low land impact, constant output (high capacity factor
70-90%)
3.​ Disadvantages: Geographically limited, potential for induced seismicity

Biomass/Biofuels:

1.​ Wood, agricultural residues, and dedicated energy crops burned or fermented
2.​ Can be carbon-neutral if sustainably managed; carbon from combustion offset by plant
growth
3.​ Concerns: Deforestation (habitat loss), competition with food crops, energy intensity of
production

8.4 Nuclear Energy

How It Works: Nuclear fission in reactors heats water to steam, driving turbines. Splitting
uranium-235 nuclei releases enormous energy.

Advantages:

1.​ High energy density; small land footprint

2.​ Zero CO2 emissions during operation
3.​ Reliable baseload power (capacity factors 90%+)
 4.​ Extensive safety record; fewer deaths per unit energy than fossil fuels

Disadvantages and Concerns:

1.​ Nuclear waste: Radioactive waste remains hazardous for thousands of years; no
permanent disposal solution in most countries
2.​ Accident risk: Catastrophic potential (Chernobyl, Fukushima) though rare
3.​ Capital intensive: High upfront costs
4.​ Public perception: Significant public opposition in many countries
5.​ Uranium mining impacts: Habitat disruption, radioactive tailings

Advanced Designs: Small modular reactors (SMRs), fast breeder reactors, and fusion
research aim to address current limitations.

8.5 Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Efficiency improvements and conservation can reduce energy demand growth; often more
cost-effective than new energy supply.

Strategies:

1.​ Building efficiency: Insulation, efficient HVAC, LED lighting

2.​ Industrial efficiency: Process improvements, waste heat recovery
3.​ Transportation: Vehicle efficiency standards, electric vehicles, public transit
4.​ Behavioral changes: Reduced consumption, shift toward low-carbon lifestyles

8.6 Energy Transition Challenges

Grid Integration: High renewable penetration requires energy storage (batteries, pumped
hydro, compressed air) and smart grid technologies to manage intermittency.

Energy Justice: Transition must be equitable; fossil fuel workers need support for just
transition; energy access for developing countries without perpetuating fossil dependence.

Resource Constraints: Renewable energy requires rare earth elements, lithium, and cobalt;
supply chain sustainability is important.

1.​ Key Points:No single energy source is perfect; portfolio approach combining multiple
renewables is most practical
2.​ Energy efficiency is the "first fuel"—most cost-effective way to reduce emissions
3.​ Complete decarbonization by mid-century is technically feasible but requires rapid and
sustained effort

Final Review and Key Takeaways

Major Environmental Systems

The Earth is a complex, interconnected system where changes in one component affect
all others:

1.​ Atmosphere: Regulates climate and contains air for respiration; increasingly impacted
by greenhouse gas emissions
2.​ Hydrosphere: Stores and circulates water; freshwater increasingly scarce; oceans
warming and acidifying
3.​ Lithosphere: Provides mineral resources and supports soil formation; increasingly
degraded through extraction and erosion
4.​ Biosphere: Provides all food and many resources; biodiversity rapidly declining
5.​ Interactions: Climate change drives sea level rise (hydrosphere), species extinction
(biosphere), and soil degradation (lithosphere)

The Anthropocene: Human Impact on Earth

Humans now dominate Earth's biogeochemical cycles and landscape. Key human impacts:

1.​ CO2 concentrations 50% higher than any time in past 800,000 years
2.​ Nitrogen cycle doubled; phosphorus cycle tripled
3.​ 50% of land surface modified by humans
4.​ ~68% of vertebrate populations declined since 1970
5.​ Extinction rate 100-1000 times background

Sustainability Framework

Achieving sustainability requires:

1.​ Mitigation: Reducing human impacts (e.g., transitioning to clean energy, protecting
forests)
2.​ Adaptation: Adjusting to unavoidable changes (e.g., sea walls against rising seas,
drought-resistant crops)
3.​ Circular Economy: Designing out waste; reducing, reusing, and recycling materials
4.​ Systemic Change: Transforming production and consumption systems toward
sustainability
5.​ Justice and Equity: Ensuring burdens and benefits of environmental protection are
fairly distributed

Climate Action and Mitigation Pathways

To limit warming to 1.5°C (Paris Agreement goal):

1.​ Global emissions must peak immediately and decline ~7-10% annually
2.​ Requires decarbonization of electricity (to ~100% renewables/nuclear)
 3.​ Electrification of transport and heating
4.​ Energy efficiency improvements
5.​ Protection and restoration of forests and natural sinks
6.​ Negative emissions technologies (carbon capture) likely needed late century

Individual Actions

While systemic change is essential, individual actions matter:

1.​ Reduce energy consumption: Efficiency, reduced consumption, alternative transport

2.​ Reduce consumption: Buy less, buy better, buy secondhand
3.​ Eat lower on food chain: Reducing meat/dairy consumption is one of highest-impact
actions
4.​ Vote and engage politically: Support climate-friendly policies
5.​ Invest and divest: Shift investments away from fossil fuels
6.​ Educate: Knowledge and awareness drive personal and collective action
7.​ Community engagement: Work collectively; individual actions are valuable but
insufficient alone

Hope and Opportunity

While environmental challenges are serious, solutions exist:

1.​ Technology: Renewable energy, efficiency, and other technologies are cost-competitive
and rapidly improving
2.​ Economic: Clean energy creates more jobs than fossil fuels
3.​ Health: Transitioning away from fossil fuels improves air quality and public health
4.​ Ecological: Protected areas show biodiversity recovery when humans step back
5.​ Political: Growing recognition of environmental challenges; international and national
commitments increasing

The transition to sustainability is both challenge and opportunity—requiring innovation,

investment, and commitment, but offering a healthier future for both humans and the rest of the
biosphere.