Interdependence of
Life:
Ecosystems
By Deanne Erdmann, MS
BioEd Online
Ecological Terminology
◼ Environment
◼ Ecology
◼ Biotic vs. Abiotic
◼ Population
◼ Community
◼ Ecosystem
◼ Biosphere
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◼ Ecological Terminology
• Environment – surroundings of an organism including the plants, animals and microbes with
which it interacts.
• Ecology – study of how living organisms interact with the physical and biological
environments. A German biologist, Ernst Haeckel, coined the term ecology in 1866.
• Abiotic - non-living chemical and physical factors of the environment (e.g. temperature, light,
water, soil, nutrients).
• Biotic – living organisms that are part of the environment.
• Population – a group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area.
• Community – all interacting populations living in the same geographic area.
• Ecosystem – all interacting communities of organisms and abiotic factors of the environment
within a defined area.
• Biosphere – the global ecosystem, including all the earth’s regions that can support life (land,
air, water).
Ecosystems
◼ All members of a community, along with
their physical and chemical environments
◼ Vary greatly in size
Coral Reefs are a rich,
◼ Diversity promotes stability and diverse and productive
productivity ecosystems
◼ Dynamic
◼ energy flow
◼ chemical cycling
◼ Change over time (succession)
A coastal wetland on
Lake Superior,
Wisconsin.
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◼ Ecosystems
◼ An ecosystem is composed of all interacting organisms (biota) along with
their physical and chemical environments. Physical aspects of an
ecosystem, called abiotic components, include variables related to
temperature, sunlight, soil, and other factors.
◼ Ecosystems vary in size from microscopic environments to large
geographical areas. The boundaries of an ecosystem are not usually
distinct and the activities of one ecosystem often impact other ecosystems.
Some ecologists consider the biosphere as a global ecosystem.
◼ Ecosystem diversity can be measured by the richness of genetic diversity
within individual species, by the number of different species present, and
the variety of habitats. Diverse ecosystems are believed to be more stable
and productive.
◼ Energy and nutrients (chemicals) continuously move through
ecosystems. Because energy cannot be recycled, a continuous input
is required, almost always by sunlight. Elements such as carbon,
sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen are recycled within ecosystems
through biogeochemical cycles. Both energy and chemicals are
transferred by photosynthesis and feeding relationships. The flow
of carbon through ecosystems closely parallels the flow of energy.
◼ Over long periods of time, ecosystems change in appearance and
composition. Succession is the regular replacement of populations
in a habitat. Some communities may follow a recognizable
sequence of change ending in a relatively stable community
referred to as a climax community. Recently, the concept of climax
community has generated considerable debate as the endpoints of
a succession depend on the introduction of complex environmental
factors.
Biomes
◼ Tropical Rainforests
◼ Savannas
◼ Deserts Grasslands in the Great
Sand Dunes National
◼ Temperate Grasslands Monument and Preserve
◼ Temperate Deciduous Forests Prairie Creek thumbnail
◼ Coniferous Forests
◼ Arctic Tundra
Prairie Creek Redwoods
Sate Park
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◼ Biomes
◼ Biomes are terrestrial sets of ecosystems characterized by rainfall,
temperature, and the dominant form of vegetation. A single biome
occupies a large geographic area and usually is found on more
than one continent.
• Tropical Rainforests – contain at least one-half of the world’s
species of plants and animals and are dominated by tall, broad-
leaved trees. Tropical rainforests are wet and hot year-round and
have nutrient poor soil (most of the nutrients are held in the
vegetation).
• Savannas – dry grasslands with widely spaced broadleaf,
deciduous, and evergreen trees. Savannas are characterized by low
rainfall or prolonged periods of drought. Herds of migratory
grazing animals and fire are important in maintaining savannas.
• Deserts – lack of water is the most influential feature. Vegetation is
limited and life is based on water conservation. Many animals are
active at night to avoid high daytime temperatures.
• Temperate Grasslands – sometimes called prairies. Summers are hot
and wet, winters are cold. Fire, seasonal drought, and grazing are
instrumental in maintaining grasslands, recycling nutrients and
preventing the succession of shrubs and trees. Temperate grasslands
have extremely fertile soil and have been converted to some of the
richest agricultural areas on earth. Grasslands usually lie in a zone
between temperate deciduous forests and deserts, and intergrade with
both biome types.
• Temperate Deciduous Forests – warm summers, cold to moderate
winters, plentiful rainfall, and rich soils. Hardwood and deciduous
(shed leaves in winter) trees are characteristic of this biome type.
• Coniferous (Evergreen) Forests – cold winters, seasonal dry periods,
and nutrient poor soils. Cone-bearing trees such as the Douglas Fir,
redwoods, spruce, hemlock, and pines make up the dominant
vegetation. The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, is the largest
terrestrial biome.
• Arctic Tundra – cold temperatures, strong winds, and permanently
frozen soil (permafrost). Dominant vegetation types are grasses,
mosses, and lichens.
Aquatic Ecosystems
◼ Freshwater
◼ Flowing Water
◼ Lakes
◼ Wetlands Snake River with Grand
Tetons in background
◼ Estuaries
◼ Oceans
◼ Intertidal or littoral
◼ Coastal or neritic
◼ Coral Reefs
◼ Open Ocean Mountain Lake in
Grand Teton
◼ Benthic National Park
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◼ Aquatic Ecosystems
◼ Aquatic ecosystems make up the largest part of the biosphere. The term “biome” is based on
dominant vegetation and is not applicable to aquatic environments. Water depth, flow,
chemistry, available light, and temperature are key factors in describing aquatic ecosystems.
• Flowing bodies of water, such as rivers, streams, and creeks, are influenced by excess water
draining from the surface of land. Organisms are well adapted to the flow.
• Lakes – have three major areas: littoral (shallow, near shore), limnetic (farther from shore, near
surface), and profundal zones (deep, below light penetration).
• Wetlands – swamps, marshes, and bogs may contain fresh, salty, or brackish water. Many
wetlands are productive ecosystems, serving as important breeding grounds for animals.
• Estuaries – form where a freshwater river meets the ocean. Estuaries are extremely productive
because of the rich organic nutrients and available light, and they are usually bordered by
coastal wetlands.
• Oceans – communities living in oceans are greatly influenced by depth and light penetration.
▪ Intertidal or littoral region – where land meets water, between high and low tide.
▪ Coastal or neritic zone – extends from the low tide mark to the continental shelf
drop-off.
▪ Coral Reefs – found in shallow warm coastal areas, diverse and productive
communities. Dinoflagellates occur as symbionts in many corals, providing the
nutrients to make coral reefs one of the most productive ecosystems in the world.
▪ Open Ocean – divided into photic (enough light for photosynthesis) and aphotic
(insufficient light for photosynthesis) zones.
▪ Benthic – bottom layer, varies in productivity.
Zonation in Lakes
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◼ Zonation in Lakes
◼ The photic zone is an area where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis. Within
the photic zone, the shallow area found close to shore is designated as the littoral
zone, the surface water away from the shore is referred to as the limnetic zone.
◼ The area where very little light penetrates and the primary organisms are
heterotrophic is called the profundal (aphotic) zone. The benthic zone (the bottom
of lakes) and profundal zone contain organisms that feed off decaying organic
matter called detritus. The benthic zone usually has higher biodiversity than the
profundal zone.
◼ Lakes are often are categorized as oligotrophic or eutrophic by their production of
organic matter. Oligotrophic lakes are generally deeper, have sparse nutrients, and
clear blue water. Eutrophic lakes tend to be more shallow and have a rich nutrient
supply.
Thermal Stratification in Lakes
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◼ Thermal Stratification in Lakes
◼ Large bodies of water often have layers with different
temperatures. In the summer, the top layer (epilimnion) is warmer
than the bottom layer (hypolimnion). The boundary between the
upper and lower layers is called the thermocline. Winter
approaches and the upper layer cools, eliminating the thermocline.
Winds create circulation and the top and bottom regions will mix
(called fall overturn). In the spring, the temperature of the upper
layer (now the coolest layer) warms and the layers mix in what is
called the spring overturn. The mixing of oxygen and other
nutrients between the upper and lower regions during seasonal
overturns supplies essential ingredients for organisms in lake
ecosystems.
Zonation in a Marine Environment
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◼ Zonation in a Marine Environment
◼ The marine environment is categorized by distance from shore,
amount of light, and depth of water. The photic zone (depths
which receive sufficient light to support photosynthesis) consists
of the intertidal zone (exposed to air when the tide changes), the
neritic zone (water less than 300 meters deep) and the oceanic
zone. Water depths that receive insufficient light to support
photosynthesis are designated as aphotic. The third ocean
environment consists of the bottom or benthic zone, which spans
across all ocean depths. A variety of organisms that feed on
detritus (decomposing organic matter) live in the benthic zone.
The deepest benthic area is referred to as the abyssal zone.
Organisms living in the abyssal zone (usually considered to be at
depths greater than 12,000 ft or 4,000 m) are adapted to extremely
cold temperatures and high pressures.
Primary Production
◼ The conversion of light energy
to chemical energy is called
“gross primary production.”
(photosynthesis)
◼ Plants use the energy captured
in photosynthesis for
maintenance and growth.
◼ The energy that is accumulated
in plant biomass is called “net
primary production.”
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◼ Primary Production in Plants
◼ The total production of organic compounds by plants is
referred to as primary productivity or production. This
represents the total amount of light energy transformed
into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Only
about 1 – 5 % of the solar energy in any given location
actually is captured for use or storage by plants. After
the metabolic requirements of producers (plants or
other photosynthetic organisms) are met, the total
energy (accumulated as biomass) available to be passed
through the food chain is called net primary
productivity.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
◼ Producers (Autotrophs) and Consumers (Heterotrophs)
◼ Trophic Levels
◼ Ecological Pyramids of Energy
◼ Ecological Pyramids of Biomass
◼ Ecological Pyramids of Numbers
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Energy Flow in Ecosystems
◼ Energy Flow in Ecosystems
◼ Primary production in an ecosystem predominately occurs through the
photosynthetic action of autotrophs (producers) such as plants, algae, and
some bacteria. Once this energy has been captured by autotrophic
organisms, it is passed on to heterotrophs (consumers) in different trophic
levels.
◼ A trophic level is made of all the organisms that share the same number
of energy transfers from sunlight energy (plants are the first, herbivores
the second, and carnivores the third). Transfer of energy between trophic
levels is inefficient because much of the energy captured is lost to building
and maintaining the bodies of organisms. Less than 10% of the energy
obtained by organisms at each level is available to organisms in the next
trophic level. The efficiencies of different trophic levels can be illustrated
in ecological pyramids, either as available energy, biomass or numbers of
organisms.
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Ecological Pyramids of Energy
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◼ Ecological Pyramids of Energy
◼ Energy in ecosystems flows from producers (photosynthetic
organisms) to consumers (herbivores and carnivores). Ecological
pyramids of energy usually depict the amount of living material
(or its energetic equivalent) that is present in different trophic
levels. In this diagram, energy is depicted in kilocalories.
◼ Primary producers convert only about 1% of the energy in
available sunlight. The average amount of energy that is available
to the next trophic level is about 10%. Because so much energy is
utilized in building and maintaining organisms, food chains (series
of feeding relationships) are usually limited to just three or four
steps. Pyramids of energy can not be inverted.
Ecological Pyramids of Energy
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◼ Ecological Pyramids of Energy
◼ Energy in ecosystems flows from producers (photosynthetic
organisms) to consumers (herbivores and carnivores). Ecological
pyramids of energy usually depict the amount of living material
(or its energetic equivalent) that is present in different trophic
levels. In this diagram, energy is depicted in kilocalories.
◼ Primary producers convert only about 1% of the energy in
available sunlight. The average amount of energy that is available
to the next trophic level is about 10%. Because so much energy is
utilized in building and maintaining organisms, food chains (series
of feeding relationships) are usually limited to just three or four
steps. Pyramids of energy can not be inverted.
Biogeochemical Cycles
◼ Cycling of materials between the
environment and organisms
◼ Chemical and biological processes
◼ Examples
Plants obtain nitrogen
◼ Water cycle from nitrogen-fixing
bacteria and pass it to
◼ Nitrogen cycle other organisms through
the food chain
◼ Phosphorus cycle
◼ Carbon cycle
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◼ Biogeochemical Cycles
◼ Chemical elements essential to life are available in limited amounts
and must be cycled between living organisms and the
environment. Because these processes involve both chemical and
biological processes, they are called biogeochemical cycles.
Elements such as carbon (from carbon dioxide), hydrogen, and
nitrogen move between the atmosphere and organisms, while
elements such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sodium, and iron enter into organisms from the soil. The four
primary biogeochemical cycles are water, nitrogen, carbon, and
phosphorus.
Water Cycle
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◼ Water Cycle
◼ The water or hydrologic cycle refers to the continuous circulation
of moisture on earth, particularly between the atmosphere and the
earth’s surface. Solar radiation provides the energy for the water
cycle. Water changes between gaseous and liquid states through
the processes of transpiration, evaporation, and precipitation.
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor by plant parts (mostly
through tiny pores, known as stomata). Only a small amount of
water is involved in a chemical process that occurs during
photosynthesis (hydrogen and oxygen are split).
◼ All living things require water.
Nitrogen Cycle
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◼ Nitrogen Cycle
◼ A major component of the atmosphere, nitrogen is essential for all living things.
However, most organisms are unable to use the gaseous forms of nitrogen present in
the atmosphere. In order for nitrogen to be usable by most organisms, it must be
“fixed,” in other words, combined with oxygen, hydrogen or carbon to form other
molecules. Nitrogen fixation can happen during rainstorms, which yields nitrate and
ammonium ions. Nitrogen also can be fixed biologically by free-living and symbiotic
bacteria. Leguminous plants, for example, host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root
nodules allowing them to capture nitrogen and incorporate it into proteins and other
molecules.
◼ Unlike other organisms, nitrogen fixing bacteria are able to convert atmospheric
nitrogen to ammonia, which then can serve as raw material for the incorporation of
nitrogen into other molecules. The other four important steps in the nitrogen cycle are:
(1) assimilation (reduction of nitrate ions [NO3-] inside plants to ammonium ions
[NH4+], which are used to manufacture proteins and other molecules; this conversion
requires energy); (2) ammonification (release of excess nitrogen in the form of
ammonia [NH3] and ammonium ions [NH4+] by soil-dwelling bacteria and some fungi
during the decomposition of complex organic compounds such as proteins, and
nucleic acids); (3) nitrification (the oxidation of ammonium ions or ammonia by free-
living, soil dwelling bacteria to nitrates [NO3-]; and (4) denitrification (the conversion
of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen [N2 ] by free-living bacteria in soil; this conversion yields
energy and occurs in conditions with low levels of oxygen).
Carbon Cycle
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◼ Carbon Cycle
◼ Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, comprises about 0.03 percent of the
atmosphere. Worldwide circulation of carbon atoms is called the carbon
cycle. Since carbon becomes incorporated into molecules used by living
organisms during photosynthesis, parts of the carbon cycle closely parallel
the flow of energy through the earth’s living systems. Carbon is found in
the atmosphere, the oceans, soil, fossil deposits and living organisms.
Photosynthetic organisms create carbon-containing molecules (known as
“organic” compounds), which are passed to other organisms as depicted
in food webs. Each year, about 75 billion metric tons of carbon are trapped
in carbon-containing compounds through photosynthesis. Carbon is
returned to the environment through respiration (breakdown of sugar or
other organic compounds), combustion (burning of organic materials,
including fossil fuels), and erosion.
Biogeochemical Cycle Activity
◼ Pass out untitled diagrams of the water cycle, nitrogen
cycle, and carbon cycle.
◼ Have students title each cycle and explain why they
chose these titles.
◼ Provide a list of labeling terms and have students create
labels for each stage or process on all three diagrams.
◼ Applications/suggestions
◼ Use as an introductory or post-discussion
assessment.
◼ Laminate group sets and use erasable markers to
save paper and prep time.
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