Matrices and Determinant

January 5, 2026

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Definition of a Matrix

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.

 
1 2 3
A=
4 5 6
This matrix has 2 rows and 3 columns and is of order 2 × 3.

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Basic Operations on Matrices

To add or subtract, two matrices must be of the same order. The sum or
difference is determined by adding or subtracting corresponding elements.
For example;
Addition    
2 9 3 1 2 −3
Example 1: +
1 5 −2 3 7 4
   
2 + 1 9 + 2 3 + (−3) 3 11 0
= =
1 + 3 5 + 7 −2 + 4 4 12 2
     
1 2 5 6 6 8
Example 2: + =
3 4 7 8 10 12

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Basic Operations on Matrices( Subtraction)

Example 1:    
−1 9 1 2
 1 2 − 3 7 
3 4 1 −4
   
−1 − 1 9−2 −2 7
 1−3 2 − 7  =  −2 −5 
3 − 2 4 − (−4) 2 8
Example 2:      
1 2 5 6 −4 −4
− =
3 4 7 8 −4 −4

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Types of Matrices (Overview)

Common types of matrices include:

Row matrix
Column matrix
Rectangular matrix
Square matrix
Zero matrix
Diagonal matrix
Identity matrix
Symmetric matrix
Skew-symmetric matrix
Triangular matrix

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Row and Column Matrices

Row Matrix: A matrix with only one row.

 
2 5 −1

Column Matrix: A matrix with only one column.

 
3
−2
7

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Rectangular and Square Matrices

Rectangular Matrix:  
1 2 3
4 5 6
Square Matrix:  
1 4
3 2

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Zero and Diagonal Matrices

Zero Matrix:  
0 0
0 0
Diagonal Matrix:  
2 0 0
0 −1 0
0 0 5

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Identity Matrix

An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix with 1s on the main diagonal.

 
1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1

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Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix is symmetric if:

AT = A

Example:  
1 3
3 4

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Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix is skew-symmetric if:

AT = −A

Properties:
All diagonal elements are zero
Example:  
0 2
−2 0

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Triangular matrix
This is a square matrix in which elements below and/or above the principal
diagonal are all zeros. We have mainly two types of triangular matrices.
A square matrix whose all elements above the main diagonal are zero
is called a lower triangular matrix. That is, aij = 0 when i < j and
aij ̸= 0 when i > j. For example
 
2 0 0
 3 3 0 
1 4 1

A square matrix whose all elements below the main diagonal are zero
is called an upper triangular matrix. That is, aij = 0 when i > j and
aij ̸= 0 when i < j.  
3 1 −3
 0 2 4 
0 0 1

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Minor of an Element

The minor of an element is obtained by deleting:

its row
its column
Example:  
1 2
3 4
Minor of 2 is 3.

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Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose of a matrix A denoted by AT is obtained when rows of

matrix A are converted to columns.
Example: If  
1 2
A=
3 4
Then  
T 1 3
A =
2 4

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Matrix Multiplication

Matrix multiplication is defined only when:

Columns of first matrix = Rows of second matrix

If A is m × n and B is n × p, then AB is m × p.

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Scalar Multiplication

Multiplying a matrix by a number multiplies every entry.

Example:    
2 −1 6 −3
3 =
0 4 0 12

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Example: Matrix Multiplication

   
1 2 2 0
A= , B=
3 4 1 5
   
(1 · 2 + 2 · 1) (1 · 0 + 2 · 5) 4 10
AB = =
(3 · 2 + 4 · 1) (3 · 0 + 4 · 5) 10 20

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Important Note on Multiplication

Matrix multiplication is not commutative:

AB ̸= BA

Students must always check the order before multiplying matrices.

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Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix

For:  
a b
A=
c d

|A| = ad − bc
If |A| = 0, then A has no inverse.

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Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix

For:  
a b
A=
c d

|A| = ad − bc
Example:  
3 2
⇒ |A| = 12 − 2 = 10
1 4

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Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix

For:  
a b c
A = d e f 
g h i

|A| = a(ei − fh) − b(di − fg ) + c(dh − eg )

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Example: 3 × 3 Determinant

Find the determinant of:  

1 2 3
4 5 6 
7 8 9

|A| = 1(45 − 48) − 2(36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35)

= −3 + 12 − 9 = 0

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Properties of Determinant of a Matrix
1 Determinant evaluated across any row or column is the same.
2 The determinant of a null matrix is zero (0).
3 The determinant of an identity matrix is 1.
4 The determinant of a square matrix has the value as that of the
determinant of the transposed matrix.
5 If any two row (or two column) of a determinant are interchanging
the value of the determinant is multiplied by -1.
6 Let A and B be two matrices of the same size, then

det(AB) = det(A) × det(B).

7 Determinant of inverse of a matrix can be defined as

1
det(A−1 ) =
det(A)

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Cofactor

Cofactor = Minor × Sign

Steps:
1 Cancel the row and column
2 Find what remains (minor)
3 Apply the sign

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Sign Pattern for Cofactors

Sign Pattern for Cofactors of a 2 × 2 Matrix

 
+ −
− +

Sign Pattern for Cofactors of a 3 × 3 Matrix

 
+ − +
− + −
+ − +

The sign depends only on the position of the element.

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Cofactor Example (2 × 2)

 
a b
A=
c d
Cofactors:
C11 = d, C12 = −c
C21 = −b, C22 = a
which is  
d −c
A=
−b a

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Adjoint of a Matrix

The adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the cofactor matrix.

adj(A) = (cofactor matrix)T

Adjoint of a 2 × 2 Matrix
 
a b
A=
c d
 
d −b
adj(A) =
−c a

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Inverse of a Matrix

A matrix A has an inverse A−1 if:

AA−1 = A−1 A = I

Only square matrices with non-zero determinant have inverses.

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Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix

If |A| =
̸ 0, then:
1
A−1 = adj A
det(A)

Example: Inverse of a Matrix

 
2 1
A=
5 3
   
3 −5 3 −1
|A| = (2)(3)−(1)(5) = 1, cofactor = and adj A =
−1 2 −5 2
   
1 3 −1 3 −1
A−1 = =
1 −5 2 −5 2

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Example 2: Inverse of a Matrix

Find the inverse of the matrix

 
3 2
.
1 4

Solution
The determinant is 3 × 4 − 2 × 1 = 12 − 2 = 10.
The adjoint is  
4 −2
.
−1 3
So, the inverse is  
1 4 −2
.
10 −1 3

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