CORE MODULE SYLLABUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FOR UNDER

GRADUATE COURSES OF ALL BRANCHES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Unit 1: The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Definition, scope and importance (2 lectures)

Need for public awareness

Unit 2: Ecosystems · (6 Lectures)

Concept of an ecosystem · Structure and function of an ecosystem · Producers, consumers

and decomposers · Energy flow in the ecosystem · Ecological succession · Food chains, food
webs and ecological pyramids · Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and
function of the following ecosystem: a. Forest ecosystem b. Grassland ecosystem c. Desert
ecosystem d. Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, ocean estuaries)

Unit 3: Natural Resources:

Renewable and non-renewable resources: Natural resources and associated problems. (a)
Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction,
mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. (b) Water resources: Use and
over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams-
benefits and problems. (c) Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of
extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. (d) Food resources: World food
problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture,
fertilizer-pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies. (e) Energy resources:
Growing energy needs, renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy
sources, case studies. (f) Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced
landslides, soil erosion and desertification. · Role of an individual in conservation of natural
resources. · Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles. (8 Lectures)

Unit 4: Biodiversity and its conservation ·

Introduction – Definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity · Biogeographical

classification of India · Value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical
aesthetic and option values · Biodiversity at global, national and local levels · India as a
mega-diversity nation · Hot-spots of biodiversity · Threats to biodiversity: habitat loss,
poaching of wildlife, man wildlife conflicts · Endangered and endemic species of India ·
Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity (8 Lectures)

Unit 5: Environmental Pollution

Definition · Causes, effects and control measures of: a. Air pollution b. Water pollution c.
Soil pollution d. Marine pollution e. Noise pollution f. Thermal pollution g. Nuclear pollution
· Solid waste management: Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial
wastes. · Role of an individual in prevention of pollution · Pollution case studies · Disaster
management: floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides (8
Lectures)

Unit 6: Social Issues and the Environment ·

From unsustainable to sustainable development · Urban problems and related to energy ·

Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management · Resettlement and
rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns. Case studies. · Environmental ethics:
Issues and possible solutions · Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer
depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust. Case studies. · Wasteland reclamation ·
Consumerism and waste products · Environmental Protection Act · Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act · Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act · Wildlife
Protection Act · Forest Conservation Act · Issues involved in enforcement of environmental
legislation · Public awareness (7 Lectures)

Unit 7: Human Population and the Environment ·

Population growth, variation among nations · Population explosion – Family Welfare

Programmes · Environment and human health · Human Rights · Value Education · HIV /
AIDS · Women and Child Welfare · Role of Information Technology in Environment and
Human Health · Case Studies (6 Lectures)

Unit 8: Field Work ·

Visit to a local area to document environmental assetsriver/forest/grassland/hill/mountain ·

Visit to a local polluted site – Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural · Study of common
plants, insects, birds · Study of simple ecosystems-pond, river, hill slopes, etc (Field
work equal to 5 lecture hours)

Unit 1: The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Definition, scope and importance, Need for public awareness

Question and answer :-

2marks questions

1 Define environment?

The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’.
environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical conditions that surround,
affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people, animals and plants”

2 What are the segments of environment?

Environment consists of four segments.

1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

Explain the scope of environmental studies.?

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of areas and
aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
Natural resources- their conservation and management
Ecology and Biodiversity
Environmental pollution and control
Human population and environment
Social issues in relation to development and environment

Explain the importance of environmental studies ?

The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment etc.
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national issues but are
global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development:

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation

Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed
world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’
factories to South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the
environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor
desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India. Evidently
with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a
heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized
soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and
damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:

It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative

goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth..
(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our activities
cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our
actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.

CHAPTER-2
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers, Consumers
and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological Succession – Food Chains,
Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction, Types, Characteristic Features, Structure
and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem (B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem
(D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds, Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)
BIODIVERSITY Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: Genetic, Species and Ecosystem
Diversity – Biogeographical Classification of India – Value of Biodiversity: Consumptive
Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and Option Values – Biodiversity at Global,
National and Local Levels – India as a Mega-Diversity Nation – Hot-Spots of Biodiversity –
Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts –
endangered and Endemic Species of India – Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-
Situ conservation of Biodiversity. Field Study of Common Plants, Insects and Birds.

Define ecology?
The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) – means
“house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of. Hence,
ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of relations between
the organism and their environment.

In short Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

What is eco system define?

The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere (or)
house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, where living organism does
exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and interdependent
manner

A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is called as

“ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

What are the characteristics of ecosystem ?

Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.

It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
What is ecological succession? (2 marks)
Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

Mention the classification of ecosystem? (10marks)

The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:

1. Natural Ecosystem 2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference
by man.
The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem. 2. Aquatic Ecosystem.

1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt
content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc

ii. Marine Ecosystem:

Examples: seas and sea shores

2. man made (or) artificial ecosystem:

An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.

Explain the structure (or) components of an ecosystem?

The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains
the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components. 2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.
1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic
component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers) Animals (Consumers) and Micro Organisms (Decomposers)

The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how they get
their food.
A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants
B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence they are also
called “Photo autotrophs”.

B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:

Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly (or)
indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant eaters. Examples:
Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into
simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple products are called
decomposers (or) reducers. Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in metabolic
activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic component of the ecosystems
divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current, rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Explain the functions of ecosystem? (5 marks)

Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food.
They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary
function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and
decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are
released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.

What is Food Chain explain? (2 marks)

The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is called
as “food chain”.
A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a
picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of
organisms in an environment, as shown in the following figure.

Explain the types of food chain? (6 marks)

Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains
1. Grazing food chains:
Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain
(or) detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.
It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain

Grass land food chain

Grasses------- Grasshoppers----- Frog -------Snake------ Eagles
Forest food chain

Green plants---------- Deer ------------Tiger (or) lion

b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food chain. It is
seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain
Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton----- Zoo Plankton----- Small fish---- Large fish------ Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds---- Small fish----- Large fish --------Sharks and other animals
2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and
animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of
solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic matter.
Example:
Dead Plants------- Soil mitts---- Algae Crabs ----Small fish---- Large fish

3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain
either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A
parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’ links.
Example: Trees Fruit------ eating birds---- Lice & Bugs---- Bacteria---- Fungi

B. Food Web ( Give the meaning of food webs ) (5 marks)

food web is a network of food chains

In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are
connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being
eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called
food webs
This food web shows many linear food chains. These linear food chains are inter connected
with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web. The grazing food
chains are as follows:
Grains------ Mouse--------- Cat
Grains --------Mouse-------- Hawk
Grains-------- Mouse------ Snake------ Hawk
Grains----- Insect ------Sparrow -------Hawk
Grass------ Insect-------- Lizard----- Snake --------Hawk
Grass ---------Insect------- Sparrow------- Snake ---------Hawk

The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.

(10 marks)
C. Ecological Pyramids (what is Ecological Pyramids explain in brief )
The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles Elton
in 1927.
Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the
tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.

In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.

On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

1. Pyramid of numbers:
It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in numbers.
So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1st tropic level).
The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the
numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level. Since
the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.

The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The
number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in figure>.
Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are
decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. Thus, these pyramids are upright.

2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:

A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these
producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level.
Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees,
the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy the third
tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects
the size of which is lower.

The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since
the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is
very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and
hence it is called partially upright of number

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or)
organism) present in each tropic level.
It is expressed in gram per unit area.

Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level
to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are
called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels as shown
in the following figure.

3. Pyramid of Energy:
It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level. At each
successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence,
there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top
carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright
Explain the grassland ecosystem? (5 marks)
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in
Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons – termite mounds
produce methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release
of high CO2 – global warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot
summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile –
cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. – A
thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as
permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

BIODIVERSITY