Small Signal Audio Design

Douglas Self

AMSTERDAM . BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON . NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
ELSEVIER Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier
 Contents

Preface xiii

About the Author xvii

Acronyms xviii
Chapter 1 The Basics 1
Signals 1.
Amplifiers 2
Voltage Amplifiers 2
Transconductance Amplifiers 2
Current Amplifiers 3
Transimpedance Amplifiers 3
Negative Feedback 4
Nominal Signal Levels 5
Gain Structures 6
Amplification Then Attenuation 6
Attenuation Then Amplification 7
Raising the Input Signal to the Nominal Level 7
Active Gain Controls 8
Noise 8
Johnson Noise 9
Shot Noise 11
ilf Noise (Flicker Noise) 12
Popcorn Noise 13
Summing Noise Sources 13
Noise in Amplifiers 14
Noise in Bipolar Transistors 16
Bipolar Transistor Voltage Noise 16
Bipolar Transistor Current Noise 17
Noise in JFETs 20
Noise in Op-Amps 21
Low-Noise Op-Amp Circuitry 22
Noise Measurements 23
How to Attenuate Quietly 23

in
iv Contents

How to Amplify Quietly 25

How to Invert Quietly 26
How to Balance Quietly 28
Ultra-Low-Noise Design with Multipath Amplifiers 28
Ultra-Low-Noise Voltage Buffers 29
Ultra-Low-Noise Amplifiers 30
References 32

Chapter 2 Components 33
Conductors 33
Copper and Other Conductive Elements 34
The Metallurgy of Copper 35
Gold and Its Uses 35
Cable and Wiring Resistance 36
PCB Track Resistance 37
PCB Track-to-Track Crosstalk 39
Impedances and Crosstalk: A Case History 40
Resistors 42
Through-Hole Resistors 43
Surface-Mount Resistors 43
Resistor Imperfections 45
Resistor Noise 46
Resistor Non-Linearity 48
Capacitors 51
Capacitor Non-Linearity Examined 52
Non-Electrolytic Capacitor Non-Linearity 53
Electrolytic Capacitor Non-Linearity 58
Inductors 61
References 61

Chapter 3 Discrete Transistor Circuitry 63

Why Use Discrete Transistor Circuitry? 63
Bipolars and FETs 64
Bipolar Junction Transistors 64
The Transistor Equation 65
Beta 66
Unity-Gain Buffer Stages 66
The Simple Emitter-Follower 67
The Constant-Current Emitter-Follower 70
The Push-Pull Emitter-Follower 71
Emitter-Follower Stability 72
CFP Emitter-Followers 73
Improved Unity-Gain Buffers 75
Gain Stages 81
 Contents v ,

One-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages 81

One-Transistor Series-Feedback Gain Stages 82
Two-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages 82
Two-Transistor Series-Feedback Gain Stages 87
Discrete Op-Amp Design 88
High-Input-Impedance Bipolar Stages 92
References 94

Chapter 4 Op-Amps and Their Properties 95

A Very Brief History of Op-Amps 95
Op-Amp Properties: Noise 96
Op-Amp Properties: Slew Rate 97
Op-Amp Properties: Common-Mode Range 98
Op-Amp Properties: Input Offset Voltage 98
Op-Amp Properties: Bias Current 99
Op-Amp Properties: Cost 100
Op-Amp Properties: Distortion 101
Op-Amp Internal Distortion 101
Slew-Rate-Limiting Distortion 101
Distortion Due to Loading 103
Thermal Distortion 104
Common-Mode Distortion 104
Bipolar input op-amps 104
FET op-amps 108
Rail bootstrapping to reduce CM distortion 110
Simpler rail bootstrapping 113
Bootstrapping series-feedback JFET op-amp stages 114
Selecting the Right Op-Amp 115
Op-Amps Surveyed: BJT Input Types 117
TheLM741 Op-Amp : 118
The NE5532/5534 Op-Amp 118
Deconstructing the 5532 120
The LM4562 Op-Amp 121
The AD797 Op-Amp 124
The OP27 Op-Amp 124
The OP270 Op-Amp 125
The OP275 Op-Amp 126
Op-Amps Surveyed: JFET Input Types 128
The TL072 Op-Amp 128
The TL052 Op-Amp 129
The OPA2134 Op-Amp 131
The OPA604 Op-Amp 132
TheOPA627 Op-Amp 135
References 136
vi Contents

Chapter 5 Filters 137

Passive Filters 137
Active Filters 138
Low-Pass Filters 138
High-Pass Filters 138
Combined Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters 139
Bandpass Filters 139
Notch Filters 139
All-Pass Filters -. 139
Filter Characteristics 140
Sallen-and-Key Filters 140
Distortion in Sallen-and-Key Filters 145
Multiple-Feedback Bandpass Filters 147
Making Notch Filters 148
Differential Filters 150
References 151

Chapter 6 Preamplifier Architectures 753

Passive Preamplifiers 153
Active Preamplifiers 155
Amplification and the gain-distribution problem 156
Active Gain Controls 158
Recording Facilities 158
Tone Controls 158
References 159

Chapter 7 Moving-Magnet Disc Inputs i 161

The Vinyl Medium 161
Spurious Signals 162
Maximum Signal Levels on Vinyl .' 163
Equalization and Its Discontents 166
The 'Neumann Pole' 168
Implementing RIAA Equalization 168
Passive and Semi-Passive RIAA Equalization , 171
Calculating the RIAA Equalization Components 175
RIAA Equalization Component Tolerances 175
Simulating Inverse RIAA Equalization 178
Physical Inverse RIAA Equalization 179
Overload Margins 179
Cartridge Impedances 181
Cartridge Loading 181
Cartridge-Preamplifier Interaction 183
Cartridge DC and AC Coupling 183
 Contents vii

Discrete MM Disc Input Stages 183

Op-Amp MM Disc Input Stages 187
Noise in RIAA Preamplifiers 191
Noise Results with A-Weighting 196
RIAA Noise Measurements 196
Electronic Cartridge Loading for Lower Noise 197
Subsonic Filters 201
Combining Subsonic and Ultrasonic Filters 204
References 204

Chapter 8 Moving-Coil Head Amplifiers 207

Moving-Coil Cartridge Characteristics 207
Amplification Strategies 208
Moving-Coil Transformers 209
Moving-Coil Input Amplifiers 210
A New Moving-Coil Amplifier Configuration 213
The Complete Circuit 216
Performance 216
References 218

Chapter 9 Volume and Balance Controls 279

Volume Controls 219
Volume Control Laws 220
Loaded Linear Pots 221
Dual-Action Volume Controls 223
Tapped Volume Controls 226
Slide Faders 229
Active Volume Controls 231
The Baxandall Active Volume Control :..- 235
A Practical Baxandall Active Gain Stage 237
Potentiometers and DC 238
Motorized Potentiometers 239
Stepped Volume Controls 240
Switched Attenuator Volume Controls 241
Relay-Switched Volume Controls 249
Transformer-Tap Volume Controls 250
Integrated Circuit Volume Controls 250
Balance Controls: Passive 250
Active Balance Controls 252
Mono/Stereo Switches 254
Width Controls 254
References 255
viii Contents

Chapter 10 Tone Controls and Equalizers 257

Passive Tone Controls 258
Baxandall Tone Controls 259
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor LF Control 260
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor Tone Control 263
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor HF Control 265
1
Switched-Frequency Baxandall Controls 266
Variable-Frequency LF and HF EQs 267
Tone-Balance Controls 269
Middle Controls 271
Fixed-Frequency Baxandall Middle Controls 271
Three-Band Baxandall EQ in One Stage 273
Wien Fixed Middle EQ 276
Sweep Middles 276
The Single-Gang Sweep Middle 278
Switched-Q Variable-Frequency Wien Middle EQs 280
Switchable Peak/Shelving LF/HF EQs 281
Parametric Middle EQs 283
Graphic Equalizers 286
References 289

Chapter 11 A Complete Preamplifier 297

Architecture and Philosophy 291
The Line Inputs 293
The High-Impedance Input Buffer 293
The Tone-Control Stage 294
The Active Gain Stage 300
Performance 301
References v 302

Chapter 12 Mixer Architectures 303

Performance Factors 303
Mixer Internal Levels 304
Mixer Architecture 305
The Split Mixing Architecture 306
The In-Line Mixing Architecture 308
A Closer Look at Split-Format Modules 310
The Channel Module (Split Format) 310
Effects Return Modules 313
The Group Module 314
The Master Module 316
Talkback and Oscillator Systems 317
The In-Line Channel Module 319
 Contents ix

Chapter 13 Microphone Preamplifiers 323

Microphone Preamplifier Requirements 323
Transformer Microphone Inputs 324
The Simple Hybrid Microphone Preampilifier 325
The Balanced-Feedback Hybrid Microphone Preampilifier 326
Microphone and Line-Input Pads 329
The Padless Microphone Preampilifier 331
Capacitor Microphone Head Amplifiers 335

Chapter 14 Line Inputs 339

External Signal Levels 339
Internal Signal Levels 339
Input Amplifier Functions 340
Unbalanced Inputs 340
Balanced Interconnections 344
The Advantages of Balanced Interconnections 345
The Disadvantages of Balanced Interconnections 345
Balanced Cables and Interference 346
Electrostatic Coupling 346
Magnetic Coupling 347
Ground Voltages 348
Balanced Connectors 348
Balanced Signal Levels 348
Electronic vs. Transformer Balanced Inputs 349
Common-Mode Rejection 349
The Basic Electronic Balanced Input 352
Common-Mode Rejection: The Basic Balanced Input and Op-Amp Effects 354
Op-Amp Frequency Response Effects 355
Op-Amp CMRR Effects -. 357
Amplifier Component Mismatch Effects 357
A Practical Balanced Input 359
Variations on the Balanced Input Stage 362
Combined Unbalanced and Balanced Inputs 362
The Superbal Input 363
Switched-Gain Balanced Inputs 364
Variable-Gain Balanced Inputs 365
High-Input-Impedance Balanced Inputs 366
The Inverting Two-Op-Amp Input 367
The Instrumentation Amplifier 368
Transformer Balanced Inputs 370
Input Overvoltage Protection 371
Low-Noise Balanced Inputs 372
Low-Noise Balanced Inputs in Real Life 377
x Contents

Ultra-Low-Noise Balanced Inputs 378

References 380

Chapter 15 Line Outputs 381

Unbalanced Outputs 381
Zero-Impedance Outputs 382
Ground-Canceling Outputs 383
Balanced Outputs 386
Quasi-Floating Outputs 386
Transformer Balanced Outputs 388
Driving Heavy Loads 389
Reference 392

Chapter 16 Signal Switching 393

Mechanical Switches 393
Input-Select Switching... 394
The Virtual Contact 395
Relay Switching 397
Electronic Switching 397
Switching with CMOS Analog Gates 397
CMOS Gates in Voltage Mode 399
CMOS Gates in Current Mode 404
Series-Shunt Current Mode 406
Control Voltage Feedthrough in CMOS Gates 407
Discrete JFET Switching 407
JFETs in Voltage Mode: The Series JFET Switch 408
The Shunt JFET Switch in Voltage Mode 413
JFETs in Current Mode 414
Reducing Distortion by Biasing 417
JFET Drive Circuitry 418
Physical Layout and Offness 419
Dealing with the DC Conditions ._ 420
A Soft Changeover Circuit 420
Control-voltage feedthrough in JFETs 421
Reference 421

Chapter 17 Mixer Subsystems 423

Mixer Bus Systems 423
Input Anangements 424
Equalization 424
Insert Points 424
How to Move a Circuit Block 426
Faders 428
Postfade Amplifiers 428
 Contents xi

Direct Outputs 430

Panpots 431
Passive Panpots 432
The Active Panpot 438
LCR Panpots 439
Routing Systems 442
Auxiliary Sends 446
Group Module Circuit Blocks 446
Summing Systems 447
Voltage Summing 447
Virtual-Earth Summing 448
Balanced Summing Systems 449
Ground-Canceling Summing Systems 451
Distributed Summing Systems 452
Summing Amplifiers 456
Hybrid Summing Amplifiers 459
Balanced Hybrid Summing Amplifiers 462
PFL Systems 465
PFL Summing 466
PFL Switching .' 466
PFL Detection 468
Virtual-Earth PFL Detection 469
AFL Systems 471
Solo-in-Place Systems 473
Talkback Microphone Amplifiers 473
Line-Up Oscillators 474
Console Cooling and Component Lifetimes 477

Chapter 18 Level Indication and Metering 479

Signal-Present Indication r 479
Peak Indication 479
Distributed Peak Detection 481
Combined LED Indicators 483
VU Meters 483
PPM Meters 485
LED Bar-Graph Metering 486
A More Efficient LED Bar-Graph Architecture 488
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays 491
LCD Meter Displays 491

Chapter 19 Level Control and Special Circuits 493

Gain-Control Elements 493
A Brief History 493
JFETs 493
xii Contents

Operational Transconductance Amplifiers 496

Voltage-Controlled Amplifiers 497
Compressors and Limiters 499
Attack Artefacts 503
Decay Artefacts 504
Subtractive VCA Control 505
Noise Gates 506
Clipping •. 508
Diode Clipping 508
Active Clipping with Transistors 510
Active Clipping with Op-Amps 512
Noise Generators 521
Pinkening Filters 523
References 524

Chapter 20 Power Supplies 525

Op-Amp Supply-Rail Voltages 525
Designing a ±15 V Supply 527
Designing a ±17 V Supply 529
Using Variable-Voltage Regulators 531
Improving Ripple Performance 532
Dual Supplies From a Single Winding 533
Power Supplies for Discrete Circuitry 534
Larger Power Supplies 534
Mutual Shutdown Circuitry 536
Very Large Power Supplies 536
Microcontroller and Relay Supplies 537
+48 V Phantom Power Supplies 538
Reference 540

Chapter 21 Interfacing with the Digital Domain 547

PCB Layout Considerations 541
Nominal Levels and ADCs 542
Some Typical ADCs 543
Interfacing with ADC Inputs 544
Some Typical DACs 546
Interfacing with DAC Outputs 547

Index 549