INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

The collection of interconnected computers is called a computer network. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging information.

A computer network, also referred to as a data network, is a series of interconnected nodes that can
transmit, receive and exchange data, voice and video traffic. Examples of nodes in a network include
servers or modems. Computer networks commonly help endpoint users share resources and
communicate.

Some of the examples of network in our everyday life includes:

• Social network • Mobile network

• Network of computers • Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks

Apart from computers, networks include networking devices like switch, router, modem, etc. Networking
devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings. For communication, data in a
network is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These packets are then carried over a network.
Devices in a network can be connected either through wired media like cables or wireless media like air.
In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can receive, create, store or
send data to different network routes is called a node. In the context of data communication, a node can
be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router, digital telephone handset, a printer, a computer
or a server.
Elementary Terminology of Network
(i)Node/Workstation :- Refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to
share resources.
(ii)Server :- A computer that facilitated the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the
network. It is of two types: non-dedicated and dedicated servers.
Non-dedicated servers – On small networks, a workstation can double up as a server. It facilitate
resource sharing on a small scale. It is slower and requires more memory. The network using such a
server is called peer-to-peer networks.
Dedicated servers – On bigger networks, there is a computer reserved for server’s job and its only job is
to help workstations access data,software and hardware resources. The network using such a server is
called master-slave networks.
(iii)NIU(Network Interface Unit) – A device that is attached to each of the workstations and the server
and helps in establishing connection between them in the network. Each NIC has a unique number (node
address) called MAC (Media Access Control) address.
Need of Computer Network
Resource Sharing :- Resource Sharing means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to
anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
Reliability :- Reliability means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so if one of
them is unavailable (due to some hardware crash) the other copy can be used.
Cost Factor :- Cost factor means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared.
Evolution of Networking
In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the academic and research institutions located
at different places for scientific collaborations. The first message was communicated between the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Slowly but gradually,
more and more organisations
joined the ARPANET, and many independent smaller networks were formed.
Types of Networks
There are various types of computer networks ranging from network of handheld devices (like mobile
phones or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within a single room to the millions of
computers spread across the globe. Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate,
computer networks are broadly categorized as:
• PAN ( Personal Area Network) • LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) • WAN (Wide Area Network)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
It is a network formed by connecting a few personal
devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart
phones, printers etc., as shown in Figure. All these
devices lie within an approximate range of 10to 15
metres. A personal area network may be wired or
wireless.
PAN and revolves around one person in one building.
These types of networks are typically found in small
offices or residences, and are managed by one person or
organization from a single device. For example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop through USB
forms a wired PAN while two smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth
technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet, mouse, printer, etc., placed at a limited
distance. The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from a single room, a floor, an office having
one or more buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school,
college, or university campus. The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, or
Wi-Fi. LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can access other computers or
shared resources. Users can print documents using
a connected printer, upload/download documents and software to and from the local server. Such LANs
provide the short range communication with the high speed data transfer rates. These types of networks
can be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite
high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger geographical area
like a city or a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps,but it is considerably less as
compared to LAN. Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet services are examples of MAN.
This kind of network can be extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to
form MAN, as shown in Figure.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread across different
geographical locations of a country or in different countries or continents. A WAN could be formed by
connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless media. Large business, educational and government
organisations connect their different
branches in different locations
across the world through WAN. The
Internet is the largest WAN that
connects billions of computers,
smartphones and millions of LANs
from different continents.
Data communication terminologies
Concept of Communication
The term “Data Communication” comprises two words: Data and Communication. Data can be any text,
image, audio, video, and multimedia files. Communication is an act of sending or receiving data. Thus,
data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more networked or connected
devices.
Components of Data Communication
Whenever we talk about communication between two
computing devices using a network, five most
important aspects come to our mind. These are sender,
receiver, communication medium, the message to be
communicated, and certain rules called protocols to be
followed during communication. The communication media is also called transmission media.
Sender: A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of sending data over a network. It can
be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, video recording device, etc.
Receiver: A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving data from the
network. It can be any computer, printer, laptop, mobile phone, television, etc. In computer
communication, the sender and receiver are known as nodes in a network.
Message: It is the data or information that needs to be exchanged between the sender and the receiver.
Messages can be in the form of text, number, image, audio, video, multimedia, etc.
Communication media: It is the path through which the message travels between source and destination.
It is also called medium or link which is either wired or wireless. For example, a television cable,
telephone cable, Ethernet cable, satellite link, microwaves, etc.
Protocols: It is a set of rules that need to be followed by the communicating parties in order to have
successful and reliable data communication.
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media
The capacity of a channel is the maximum amount of signals or traffic that a channel can carry. It is
measured in terms of bandwidth and data transfer rate as described below:
Bandwidth :Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for transmission of data through
that channel. Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate. Normally, bandwidth is the difference
of maximum and minimum frequency contained in the
1000 Hz =1 KHz
composite signals. Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1000 KHz =1 MHz = 1000000 Hz
Data Transfer Rate: 1,000 megahertz = 1 Gigahertz (GHz)
Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or more bits over the channel.
Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted between source and destination in one second. It is
also known as bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per second 1 Kbps=1024 bps=210 bps
(bps). The higher units for data transfer rates are: 1 Mbps=1024 Kbps=220 bps
1 Gbps=1024 Mbps=230 bps
Suppose a user wants to upload a text document at the rate of 10
pages per 20 second. What will be the required data rate of the 1 Tbps=1024 Gbps=240 bps
channel? (Assume that 1 page contains 1600 characters and each character is of 8 bits).

Types of Data Communication:

Data communication between different devices are broadly categorised into 3 types:
 Simplex communication
 Halfduplex communication
 Full-duplex communication

Simplex Communication
It is a one way or unidirectional communication between two devices in which one device is sender
and other one is receiver. Devices use the entire capacity of the link to transmit the data. It is like a
one way street where vehicles can move in only one direction. For example, data entered through a
keyboard or audio sent to a speaker are one way communications. With the advent of IoT, controlling
home appliances is another example of simplex communication. One can control fans, lights,
fridge,oven etc. while sitting in the office or driving a car.
Half-duplex Communication
It is two way or bidirectional communication between two devices in which both the devices can send
and receive data or control signals in both directions, but not at the
same time, as shown in Figure. While one device is sending data, the other one will receive and vice-
versa. It is like sharing a one-way narrow bridge among vehicles
moving in both directions. Vehicles cannot pass the bridge simultaneously. Basically, it is a simplex
channel where the direction of transmission can be switched. Application of such type of
communication can be found in walkie-talkie where one can press the push-to-talk button and talk.
This enables the transmitter and turns off the receiver in that device and others can only listen.

Full-duplex Communication
It is two way or bidirectional communication in which both devices can send and receive data
simultaneously, as shown in Figure. It is like a two way road where vehicles can go in both directions
at the same time. This type of communication channel is employed to allow simultaneous
communication, for example, in our
mobile phones and landline telephones.
The capacity of the transmission link is
shared between the signals going in both
directions. This can be done either by
using two physically separate simplex
lines — one for sending and other for
receiving, or the capacity of the single
channel is shared between the signals
travelling in different directions.

Switching Techniques
In a network having multiple devices, we are interested to know how to connect the sender and
receiver so that one-to-one communication is possible. One solution is
to make a dedicated connection between each pair of devices or between a central device and every
other device. However, we know that such methods are costly in case of large networks. An
alternative to this is switching whereby data is routed through various nodes in a network. This
switching process forms a temporary route for the data to be transmitted. Two commonly used
switching techniques are — Circuit Switching and Packet Switching.
Circuit Switching
In circuit switching, before a
communication starts, a
dedicated path is identified
between the sender and the
receiver. This path is a
connected sequence of links
between network nodes. All
packets follow the same path established during the connection.
In earlier days, when we placed a telephone call, the switching equipment within the telephone
system finds out a physical path or channel all the way from our telephone at home to the receiver’s
telephone. This is an example of circuit switching.

Packet Switching
In packet switching, each
information or message
to be transmitted
between sender and
receiver is broken down
into smaller pieces, called
packets. These packets
are then transmitted
independently through the network. Different packets of the same message may take different routes
depending on availability. Each packet has two parts — a header containing the address of the
destination and other information, and the main message part. When all the packets reach the
destination, they are reassembled and the complete message is received by the receiver. Unlike circuit
switching, a channel is occupied in packet switching only during the transmission of the packet. On
completion of the transmission, the channel is available for transfer of packets from other
communicating parties.
Message Switching
In message switching there
is no need to establish a
dedicated path between two
stations. When a station
sends a message, the
destination address is
appended to the message.
The message is then
transmitted through the
network, in its entirety, from
node to node. Each node
receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the
next node. This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Transmission Media
A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the source (transmitter)
and destination (receiver). For example, as we switch on a ceiling fan or a light bulb, the electric wire is
the medium that carries electric current from switch to the
fan or bulb.
In data communication, transmission media can be classified as guided or unguided. In guided
transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through which data in terms of signals are
propagated between the nodes. These are usually metallic cable, fiber-optic cable, etc. They are also
known as wired media. In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic waves
using an antenna. They are also known as wireless media.

Wired Transmission Media

Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs to the category of wired transmission
media. Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission are, twisted pair, coaxial cable,
and fiber optic cable. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas the optical fiber
cable carries the light signals.
(A) Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA helical structure. Both the copper wires
are insulated with plastic covers. Usually, a number of such pairs are combined together and covered
with a protective outer wrapping. Each of the twisted pairs act as a single communication link. The use of
twisted configuration minimises the effect of electrical interference from similar pairs close by. Twisted
pairs are less expensive and most commonly used in telephone lines and LANs. These cables are of two
types: Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP).

UTP is an unshielded twisted pair cable used in computer and telecommunications mediums. Its
frequency range is suitable for transmitting both data and voice via a UTP cable.
A STP is a type of twisted pair cable that contains an extra wrapping foil or copper braid jacket to protect
the cable from defects like cuts, losing bandwidth, noise, and signal to the interference.
 UTP has high crosstalk(electromagnetic interference) STP has low crosstalk.
UTP STP
Transferring speed of the data signal is slow as compared to Transferring speed of the data signal is high
the STP. as compared to the UTP.
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However, the UTP cable is used to establish the connection media.
Generally, it is used to establish the
within a short distance, like a home or small industry. connection for enterprises over a long
distance.
Category 6 – Defines a 4-pair cable that provides an improved performance as compared to Cat 5e. It can
carry data up to 1000 Mbps with a signaling frequency of 250 MHz.
Category 4 – Defines a cable that can carry data up to 16 Mbps. It cable consists of 4 pairs of wires. The
signaling frequency of this cable is up to 20 MHz.
(B) Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is another type of data transmission
medium. It is better shielded and has more bandwidth than a twisted
pair. It has a copper wire at the core of the cable which is surrounded
with insulating material. The insulator is further surrounded with an
outer conductor (usually a copper mesh). This outer conductor is
wrapped in a plastic cover. The key to success of coaxial cable is its
shielded design that allows the cable's copper core to transmit data
quickly, without interference of environmental factors. These types of
cables are used to carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer
distance.
(C) Optical Fibre
The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of glass. Optic fiber uses
refraction to direct the light through the media. A thin transparent strand of glass at the centre is covered
with a layer of less dense glass called cladding. This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket
made of PVC or Teflon. Such
types of cables are usually
used in backbone networks.
These cables are of light
weight and have higher
bandwidth which means
higher data transfer rate.
Signals can travel longer
distances and
electromagnetic noise cannot affect the cable. However, optic fibers are expensive and unidirectional.
Two cables are required for full duplex communication.
Wireless Transmission Media
In wireless communication technology, information In wireless communication technology, information
travels in the form of electromagnetic signals through air. Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency
ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available for wireless communication. Wireless technologies allow
communication between two or more devices in short to long distance without requiring any physical
media. There are many types of wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax
etc.
The electromagnetic spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided into 4 categories;
Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves and Visible or Light waves, according to their frequency
ranges. Some

Transmission Properties
Waves
Radio Waves 1. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz
2. Omni-directional, these waves can move in all directions
3. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distance
4. Susceptible to interference
5. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate walls
6. These waves are used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones.
Microwaves 1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
2. Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or mountains.
4. Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna must be
in the direction of each other.
5. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as
radar and satellite.
6. Provide very large information-carrying capacity.
Infrared waves 1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz.
2. Very high frequency waves.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls.
4. Used for short-distance point-to-point communication such as mobile-to-
mobile, mobile-to-printer, remote-control-to-TV, and Bluetooth-enabled devices
to other devices like mouse, keyboards etc.
Wireless Technologies
(A) Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that can be used to connect mobile-phones, mouse,
headphones, keyboards, computers, etc. wirelessly over a short distance. One can print documents with
bluetooth-enabled printers without a physical connection. All these
bluetooth-enabled devices have a low cost transceiver chip. This chip uses the unlicensed frequency band
of 2.4 GHz to transmit and receive data. These devices can send data within a range of 10 meters with a
speed of 1 - 2 Mbps.

In Bluetooth technology, the communicating devices within a range of 10 meters build a personal area
network called piconet. The devices in a piconet work in a master-slave configuration. A master device
can communicate with up to 7 active slave devices at the
same time. Bluetooth technology allows up to 255 devices to build a network. Out of them, 8 devices can
communicate at the same time and remaining devices can be inactive, waiting for a response command
from the master device.
Wireless LAN
This is another way of wireless communication. Wireless LAN is a local area network (LAN), and it is a
popular way to connect to the Internet. The international organization IEEE assigns numbers to each
different standards of LAN. The wireless LAN is number as 802.11, and it is popularly known as Wi-Fi.
These networks consist of communicating devices such as laptops and mobile phones, as well as the
network device called APs (access points) which is installed in buildings or floors. An access point is a
device that is used to create a wireless local area network, by connecting to a wired router, switch, or
hub. The APs are connected to a wired network, and all the devices communicate or access the Internet
through an access
point.

Mobile Telecommunication Technologies

Today the mobile phone network is the most used network in the world. The ability to be connected to
the network on-the-go makes it very convenient to communicate with people via call or instant messages.
It is also handy to access the Internet using the mobile phone network through wireless connection. The
architecture of the mobile network has rapidly evolved over the last few decades. The different landmark
achievements in mobile communication technologies are classified as different generations. They are
identified as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G. Let us briefly discuss the mobile telecommunication generations.

The first generation (1G) mobile network system came around 1982. It was used to transmit only voice
calls. The analog signals were used to carry voices between the caller and receiver.
The second generation (2G) mobile network system came around 1991. Instead of analog signals, voice
calls were transmitted in digital form thus providing improved call quality. This increased capacity
allowed more people to talk simultaneously, and led to improved
security as the signals could be encrypted. It also enabled an additional service to send SMS and MMS
(Multimedia messages).
The third generation (3G) mobile network technology was developed during late 90s, but it was
introduced commercially around 2001. It offered both digital voice and data services. 3G provided
Internet access via the same radio towers that provide voice service to the mobile phone. It facilitated
greater voice and data capacity.
Demand for faster data is always increasing and thus 4G mobile networks were developed and now5G
networks have also come into being. 4G is much faster than 3G and this has revolutionised the field of
telecommunication by bringing the wireless experience to a new level altogether. 4G systems support
interactive multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other broadband services. Technologically, 4G
is very different compared to 3G.
The fifth generation or 5G is currently under development. It is expected to be a milestone development
for the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M) communications. Machine to machine (M2M) is
direct communication between devices — wired and wireless. 5G is expected to allow data transfer in
Gbps, which is much faster than 4G.
Network Devices
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks with different
functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let
us explore them in detail.
Modem
Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’. It refers to a device used for conversion between analog
signals and digital bits. We know computers store and process data
in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the
internet, digital data are converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it free-space or a physical
media) carries the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected to both the source and destination
nodes. The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into analog
signals. The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog signals into
digital data for the destination node to understand.

Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a network adapter used to set
up a wired network. It acts as an interface between computer and
the network. It is a circuit board mounted on the motherboard of a computer. The Ethernet cable
connects the computer to the network through NIC. Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10
Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in uniquely identifying the
computer on the network.

RJ45
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector that is used exclusively with Ethernet cables for
networking.
BNC(Bayonet Nut Coupling) A commonly used plug and socket for audio, video and networking
applications.
Repeater
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable. These signals can travel a specified distance
(usually about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit and become weak. In such conditions,
original signals need to be regenerated. A repeater is an analog device that works with signals on the
cables to which it is connected. The weakened signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put back
on the cable by a repeater.
Hub/ Switch
An Ethernet hub is a network device used to connect different devices through wires. Data arriving on
any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come
at the same time, they will collide.

Network switch
A network switch is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet
switching to receive and forward data to the destination device. Like a hub, a network switch is used to
connect multiple computers or communicating devices. When data arrives, the switch extracts the
destination address from the data packet and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet. Thus,
it sends signals to only selected devices instead of sending to all. It can forward multiple packets at the
same time. A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops such signals and
asks the sender to resend it.

Router
A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyse it and Transmit it to other networks. A
router connects a local area network to the internet.
Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has
advanced capabilities as it can analyse the data
being carried over a network, decide/alter how it is
packaged, and send it to another network of a
different type. For example, data has been divided
into packets of a certain size. Suppose these packets
are to be carried over a different type of network
which cannot handle bigger packets. In such a case,
the data is to be repackaged as smaller packets and
then sent over the network by
a router. A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones
and other devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to provide wired Internet access. These
days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/ switch. These routers connect
to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and convert them to digital data for
computing devices to process.
Gateway
As the term “Gateway” suggests, it is a key access point that
acts as a “gate” between an organisation's network and the
outside world of the Internet. Gateway serves as the entry
and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or going
out of a network must first pass through the gateway in
order to use routing paths. Besides routing data packets,
gateways also maintain information about the host
network's internal connection paths and the identified
paths of other remote networks. If a node from one network
wants to communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway,
which then routes it to the destination using the best possible route.
Wi-Fi Cards
A Wi-Fi card connects to your laptop to a network. This card generally is geared to a particular Wi-Fi
network, so to use it you must be in range of a wireless Internet signal dedicated to that network. In this
way, the Wi-Fi card acts as both a receiver and transmitter. It receives the wireless signal and
communicates with the wireless network, enabling you to access the Web with your laptop.
Networking Topologies
We have already discussed that a number of computing devices are connected together to form a Local
Area Network (LAN). The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its
topology. Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.
Bus Topology

In bus topology, each communicating device connects to a transmission medium, known as bus. Data sent
from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to the length of the bus in both
directions. That means, data can be received by
any of the nodes connected to the bus. In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is
shared among the nodes, which makes it cheaper and easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are
considered to be less secure and less reliable.
Star Topology
In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a
central node, which is a
networking device like a hub or a switch. Star topology is
considered very effective, efficient
and fast as each device is directly connected with the central
device. Although disturbance in one device will not affect the
rest of the network, any failure in a central networking device
may lead to the failure of complete network. The central node
can be either a broadcasting device means data will be
transmitted to all the nodes in the network, or a unicast device
means the node can identify the destination and forward data
to that node only.
Tree or Hybrid Topology
It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are
multiple branches and each branch can have one or
more basic topologies like star, ring and bus. Such
topologies are usually realised in WANs where
multiple LANs are connected. Those LANs may be in
the form of a ring, bus or star. In this type of network,
data transmitted from source first reaches the
centralised device and from there the data passes
through every branch where each branch can have
links for more nodes.
Identifying Nodes in a Networked Communication
Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the sender
and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data.
MAC Address
MAC stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also
known as the physical or hardware address, is a unique value
associated with a network adapter called a NIC. The MAC address is
engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a
permanent address and cannot be changed under any
circumstances. The machine on which the NIC is attached, can be
physically identified on the network using its MAC address. Each
MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length),
of which the first six digits (24 bits) contain the manufacturer’s ID
called Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later six
digits (24 bits) represents the serial number assigned to the card
by the manufacturer.
IP Address
IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a
unique address that can be used to uniquely identify each node in a
network. The IP addresses are assigned to each node in a network
that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Thus, if we know a computer’s IP address, we can
communicate with that computer from anywhere in the world. However, unlike MAC address, IP address
can change if a node is removed from one network and connected to another network.
The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short), is a 32 bit numeric address, written as four
numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an 8-bit
binary (base-2) number and each can take any value from 0 - 255.
A sample IPV4 address looks like: [Link] or [Link]
With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realised that the 32-bit IP address
will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. Thus, a 128 bits IP address, called
IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address
is represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons.
A sample IPV6 address looks like: [Link]
Network Protocol
In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties — the sender, the
receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow. We need protocols for different reasons such
as flow control, access control, addressing, etc. Flow control is
required when the sender and receiver have different speeds of sending and receiving the data. Imagine a
Computer A is sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps and computer B is receiving data at the speed of
512 Mbps. In this case, Computer B must be able to inform computer A about the speed mismatch so that
computer A can adjust its data transmission
rate.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access the World Wide
Web. Tim Berners-Lee led the development of HTTP at CERN in 1989 in collaboration with Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). HTTP is a request-response
(also called client server) protocol that runs over TCP. The common use of HTTP is between a web
browser (client) and a web server (server).
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine to another. Like
HTTP, FTP also works on a client-server model. When a user requests for a file transfer with another
system, FTP sets up a connection between the two nodes for accessing the file. Optionally, the user can
authenticate using user ID and password.
Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
PPP is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and direct connection between two
communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices will authenticate each other and establish
a direct link between them to exchange data. For example, two routers with direct connection
communicate using PPP. The Internet users who connect their home computers to the server of an
Internet Service Provider (ISP) through a modem also use PPP.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is a protocol used for email services. It uses information written on the message header (like an
envelope on a letter sent by post), and is not concerned with the content of the email message. Each email
header contains email addresses of recipients. The email containing header and body are entered into a
queue of outgoing mails.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/ Internet Protocol (IP)
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is a set of standardised rules that
uses a client-server model of communication in which a user or machine (a client) requests a service by a
server in the network. The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is
assigned an IP address, which is used to identify each node independently.

POP3
POP stands for "Post Office Protocol." POP3, sometimes referred to as just "POP," is a simple,
standardized method of delivering e-mail messages. A POP3
mail server receives e-mails and filters them into the
appropriate user folders. When a user connects to the mail
server to retrieve his mail, the messages are downloaded
from mail server to the user's hard disk.

When you configure your e-mail client, such as Outlook

(Windows) or Mail (Mac OS X), you will need to enter the
type of mail server your e-mail account uses. This will
typically be either a POP3 or IMAP(Internet Mail Access Protocol) server. IMAP mail servers are a bit
more complex than POP3 servers and allow e-mail messages to be read and stored on the server.
HTTPS
Hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP, which is the primary protocol
used to send data between a web browser and a website. HTTPS is encrypted in order to increase
security of data transfer. This is particularly important when users transmit sensitive data, such as by
logging into a bank account, email service, or health insurance provider.

Any website, especially those that require login credentials, should use HTTPS. In modern web browsers
such as Chrome, websites that do not use
HTTPS are marked differently than those
that are. Look for a green padlock in the URL
bar to signify the webpage is secure. Web
browsers take HTTPS seriously; Google
Chrome and other browsers flag all non-
HTTPS websites as not secure.
TELNET stands for TErminaL NETwork. It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to
local computer. Telnet is an old, yet very reliable communication protocol. It was originally developed as
a character-oriented terminal emulation protocol used in the UNIX environment. Today Telnet is used
extensively for system administration of routers, switches, and remote servers as well as basic text
communication in which graphics are not required.
VOIP is an acronym for Voice Over Internet Protocol, or in more common terms phone service over the
Internet. If you have a reasonable quality Internet connection you can get phone service delivered
through your Internet connection instead of from your local phone company.
GSM
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G)
digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and tablets. 2G networks
developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks.
GPRS
General Packet Radio Service is a packet-switching technology that enables data transfers through
cellular networks. It is used for mobile internet, MMS and other data communications. GPRS is a third-
generation step toward internet access.
WLL
The Wireless Local Loop Architecture (WLL Architecture) is a system that is responsible for connecting
the subscriber to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) with the help of the wireless
technology that utilizes the radio signals and thus providing the standard telephone services to the
subscriber.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
of interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared or accessed
through the Internet.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide Web in 1990
by defining three fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web:
• HTML – HyperText Markup Language. It is a language which is used to design standardised Web Pages
so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer. Basic structure of every
webpage is designed using HTML.
• URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located on the web. It
is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has a unique URL. Examples
are:
[Link] http:// [Link], [Link] etc.
URL is sometimes also called web address. However,a URL is not only the domain name. It contains other
information that completes a web address, as depicted below:

Web server is a computer where the web content is stored. Basically web server is used to host the web
sites but there exists other web servers also such as gaming, storage, FTP, email etc.
A web server is nothing but a combination of software and hardware that uses the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol, commonly known as HTTP, and some other protocols that respond to request from clients
made on the World Wide Web. The main job that the webserver performs is to display the content of the
website, which it does by storing, then processing,
and eventually delivering the webpages to the user
who has requested it.
Web site is collection of web pages while web server
is a software that respond to the request for web
resources.
XML: XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is also used
to create web pages and web applications. It is
dynamic because it is used to transport the data not for displaying the data. The design goals of XML
focus on simplicity, generality, and usability across the Internet. It is a textual data format with strong
support via Unicode for different human languages.

Web hosting - A web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that hosts websites for clients,
i.e. it offers the facilities required for them to create and maintain a site and makes it accessible on the
World Wide Web. Companies providing web hosting services are sometimes called web hosts.
80-20-rule-of-network-design - In a properly designed small to medium-sized network, 80 percent of the
traffic on a given segment should be local, and not more than 20 percent should need to move across a
backbone link.

Problem 1
MyPace University is setting up its academic blocks at Naya
Raipur and is planning to set up a network. The University has 3
academic blocks and one Human Resource Center as shown in
the diagram below: Study the following structure and answer
questions (a) to (e)
Center to Center distances between various blocks/center is as
follows:
Law Block to business Block 40m
Law block to Technology Block 80m
Law Block to HR center 105m
Business Block to technology Block 30m
Business Block to HR Center 35m
Technology block to HR center 15m
Number of computers in each of the blocks/Center is as follows:
Law Block 15
Technology Block 40
HR center 115
Business Block 25
a) Suggest the most suitable place (i.e., Block/Center) to install the server of this University with a
suitable reason.
b) Suggest an ideal layout for connecting these blocks/centers for a wired connectivity.
c) Which device will you suggest to be placed/installed in each of these blocks/centers to
efficiently connect all the computers within these blocks/centers.
d) Suggest the placement of a Repeater in the network with justification.
e) The university is planning to connect its admission office in Delhi, which is more than
1250km from university. Which type of network out of LAN, MAN, or WAN will be formed?
Justify your answer.
a) Most suitable place to install the server is HR center, as this center has maximum
number of computers.
b)

c) Switch
d) Repeater may be placed when the distance between 2 buildings is more than 70 meter.
(between HR Center and Law Block)
e) WAN, as the given distance is more than the range of LAN and MAN.
Problem 2
ABC Corp has set up its Branch at Srinagar for its office and web based activities. It has 4 zones of
Buildings as shown in the diagram.

**Business intelligence Server

Problem 3
Problem 4
Problem 5
Write various advantages and disadvantages of Star Topology
Advantages Disadvantages
[Link] to add new nodes or modify any [Link] node dependency. If
existing node without disturbing the the central controller or hub
network. fails, the entire system
2. Fast Speed collapses.
3. If any local computer or link fails, the 2. Cabling cost is more
entire system does not collapse 3. Difficult to install
4. Easy fault detection and isolation
5. Central node control.
Write various advantages and disadvantages of Ring Topology
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to troubleshoot 1. Requires more cable
2. There is no master computer on the 2. More Expensive
controller. 3. A break in cable ring brings
3. There are no collisions. down entire network
4. Fast speed 4. Data flows in single direction
[Link] fault detection and isolation

Write various advantages and disadvantages of Bus Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to install and the use for small 1. If the main cable fails the entire network
Networks. collapses.
2. Requires less cable 2. Difficult to troubleshoot
3. Failure of one node does not affect the [Link], due to traffic on single cable
network functioning. 4. Only one device transmits at a time, other devices
[Link] node can be easily added wait for their turn

Write various advantages and disadvantages of Tree Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
This topology is the combination of bus and Large cabling is required as
star topology. compared to star and bus topology.
Tree topology provides easy maintenance and On the failure of a hub, the entire
easy fault identification can be done. network fails.
A tree topology is a type of structure in which Tree network is very difficult to
all the computers are connected in a configure than other network
hierarchical fashion. topologies.
The top-most node in tree topology is known
as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.