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Design and development of an eVTOL

quadcopter using a System Approach
Introduction
The state-of-the-art quadcopter eVTOL is intended to transform urban and personal
air travel. This aircraft combines the effectiveness of a drone with the performance
of a lightweight aircraft, starting with four and eventually up to eight strong electric
motors, vertical lift capabilities, and zero-emission flying. The eVTOL provides a safe,
silent, and environmentally friendly flying experience whether it is being used for
freight transportation, aerial surveillance, or future-ready commuting.
A hypothetical system can be studied before any prototypes are constructed. In this
way, many bugs, defects and design changes can be foreseen and eliminated in early
and less costly stages of design.
The systems approach is an engineering technique that involves building and
programming a mathematical model that simulates a real physical system on a
computer that can interact with humans.
The model is then run on a computer, and the entire performance is shown in a
printout or graphical display. Based on these findings, modifications are made to the
physical system's inputs and design parameters in order to optimize the design and
performance of the system being modeled.

The PID controller adjusts how the quadcopter responds to control inputs. This is
where we fine-tune everything in simulation mode using Fast Fourier Transform,
simulating flight behavior, stability, and responsiveness before moving to real-world
testing.

An important advantage of the system approach is the reduction of lead time in the
design process.
Mathematical analysis is a tedious-job in which humans can and frequently do make
mistakes. Signs, decimal points, exponents, subscripts, and other elements must be
constantly checked and rechecked during the analysis. Except for the most basic
problem, this work should be given to a computer. This frees up the designer's time
to focus on more vital duties like formulation. Problem statements are used to make
design decisions based on computer findings.
To understand the physics of the problem, the designer must do some analysis using
mathematical models, which are a collection of algebraic vector and differential
equations that explain the behavior of the system when various inputs and design
parameters are changed.

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After the virtual testing is over, we can then move on to real-world trials. The
quadcopter should be able to hover, take off, and perform precise maneuvers,
exactly like a standard drone, but with the extra complexity of carrying a pilot.

The information here in is provided "As Is” without any further warranty. The author
assumes no liability to any person or entity for any loss or damage caused, or
claimed to be caused, directly or indirectly by the instructions contained in this
article or by the software and hardware described herein. As the author has no
control over the use, setup, assembly, modification, or misuse of the hardware,
software, and information described in this manual, no liability is accepted or
assumed for any resulting damage or injury. By using, setting up, or assembling the
materials described, the user accepts full responsibility and liability for any resulting
consequences.

Figure 1 M325 Wren shown hovering over a dirt road

Designing a manned quadcopter

Designing a manned quadcopter involves significant engineering, safety
considerations, and regulatory compliance. Here is a detailed approach to creating a
sturdy and secure design:

1. Conceptual Design
 Purpose: Define the primary use (recreational, utility, transportation).
 Passenger Capacity: Determine if it’s for one or multiple passengers.

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 Payload Capacity: Estimate total weight (passenger + structure +
batteries/fuel).
 Flight Duration & Range: Decide on flight time and range goals.

2. Regulatory Compliance
 Aviation Rules: Research local aviation laws (e.g., FAA in the U.S., EASA in
Europe).
 Certification: Ensure the design meets airworthiness standards.
 Safety Features: Plan for redundancies, emergency landing systems, and fail-
safe mechanisms.

To build an experimental DIY aircraft, you need to follow these FAA requirements:

1. Get ground and flight training from an Authorized Instructor (AI) or a

Certified Flight Instructor (CFI).
2. Pass a practical test with an Experimental Aircraft Examiner (EAE).
3. Register the aircraft with the FAA.
4. Satisfy one or more of the purposes stated in FAR 21.191.

21.191 Experimental certificates.

Experimental certificates are issued for the following purposes:

(a) Research and development. Testing new aircraft design concepts, new aircraft
equipment, new aircraft installations, new aircraft operating techniques, or new uses
for aircraft.

(g) Operating amateur-built aircraft. Operating an aircraft the major portion of

which has been fabricated and assembled by persons who undertook the
construction project solely for their own education or recreation.

3. Structural Design

 Frame Material: Use lightweight, strong materials like carbon fiber or

aluminum alloys.
 Load Distribution: Optimize for balanced load and structural integrity.
 Aerodynamics: Design for minimal drag and high efficiency.

4. Propulsion System

 Motors:

o Use high-power electric motors (BLDC or SRM for redundancy).

o Ensure thrust-to-weight ratio >2:1 for safety.

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 Propellers:

o Design or select efficient propellers suitable for the desired thrust and
RPM.
o Ensure low noise and high durability.

 Power System:

o For electric designs: Use high-capacity lithium-ion batteries or

hydrogen fuel cells.
o For hybrid designs: Incorporate a small combustion engine for
extended range.

 Redundancy: Include multiple independent systems to prevent failure.

5. Control Systems

 Flight Controller:

o Use a robust flight controller capable of managing a manned

quadcopter.
o Implement features like GPS, IMU, and barometric sensors.

 Stability & Navigation:

o Incorporate advanced algorithms for flight stability (e.g., PID control).
o Use a failsafe autopilot for emergencies.
 Manual Override: Provide pilot-controlled inputs with redundancy.

6. Power Distribution

 Battery Management:
o Use a reliable BMS (Battery Management System) for monitoring and
balancing cells.
 Wiring: Design efficient and insulated wiring for minimal losses.
 Safety: Include circuit breakers, fuses, and voltage regulators.

7. Safety Mechanisms

 Parachute System: Install an emergency recovery parachute.

 Collision Avoidance: Integrate LiDAR, radar, or ultrasonic sensors.
 Failsafe Protocols: Automatic descent on power failure or critical error.
 Fireproof Compartments: Protect batteries and electronics from thermal
runaway.

8. Aerodynamics and Efficiency

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 Shape Optimization: Ensure smooth airflow over the structure.
 Propeller Placement: Optimize placement for minimal interference and
maximum thrust.
 Energy Efficiency: Reduce weight and improve motor efficiency for extended
flight time.

9. Simulation and Testing

 CAD Modeling: Use software like SolidWorks or Fusion 360 for 3D modeling.
 CFD Analysis: Perform Computational Fluid Dynamics simulations for
aerodynamic efficiency.
 Flight Simulation: Test stability, control, and performance using simulation
tools like MATLAB/Simulink.
 Prototype Testing: Build scaled or full-size prototypes for real-world trials.

10. User Experience

 Cabin Design:

o Ensure ergonomic seating and controls.

o Include safety harnesses and shock absorption.

 HUD/Displays: Provide clear, intuitive interfaces for navigation and system

status.
 Accessibility: Design for easy entry and exit.

11. Final Assembly and Real-World Testing

 Integration: Assemble all systems, ensuring proper alignment and

connectivity.
 Ground Tests: Test motors, controls, and systems without lift-off.
 Flight Tests: Conduct tethered and then free-flight tests under controlled
conditions.
 Refinement: Address any issues and refine design for reliability.

12. Scaling and Production

 Mass Production: Plan for scalable manufacturing.

 Maintenance Protocols: Develop guidelines for regular checks and servicing.
 Customer Training: Provide pilot training and certification programs.

Developing a manned quadcopter

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Developing a manned quadcopter requires equations of motion,
control laws, and propulsion calculations. Below are the key
components and equations to consider:

1. Thrust and lift.

For a stable hover or vertical motion, the total thrust must counteract the weight:

Total thrust = T1 + T2 +T 3 + T 4 = mg

Where:
T1, T2, T3, T4: Thrust generated by each rotor.
m: Total mass of quadcopter, including payload.
g: Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2).

2. Torque and Angular Dynamics:

The net torque controls roll, pitch, and yaw:

Roll (ϕ): ϕ = (T1 + T2) - (T3 + T4)

Pitch (  = (T1 + T4) - (T2 + T3)
Yaw (ѱ): ѱ= (CrT1 - CrT2 + CrT3 - CrT4)

Where: Cr is the drag coefficient of the rotor.

3. Translational Dynamics:
Newton’s second law governs the linear motion of the quadcopter in the x, y and z
directions:
m¨x = -T sin(θ)
m¨y = T sin(ϕ)
m¨z = -T cos(ϕ) cos(θ) - mg

Where: ¨x, ¨y, ¨z are linear accelerations in the respective axes.

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Tools for Simulation and Design:

1. MATLAB/Simulink: For dynamic modeling and control design.

2. LTSpice: For electrical system simulations.
3. SolidWorks/ANSYS: For structural and aerodynamic simulations.

Required Voltage for your BLDC motors

To determine the required voltage for your BLDC motors to

power a quadcopter carrying a 210-pound human, we need to
consider several key factors:
1. Total Thrust Requirement

A quadcopter must generate at least twice the total weight in thrust for stable flight
and maneuverability.

Weight Calculation

 Pilot + Frame + Battery + Electronics

o Pilot: 210 lbs (95 kg)
o Frame, Battery, and Components: Estimated 90 lbs (41 kg)
o Total Weight: ≈ 300 lbs (136 kg)
o Total Thrust Required (for controlled flight):
 300×2=600 lbs(272 kg)
o Per motor (for a 2 x quad configuration):
 600 lbs/8=75 lbs (34 kg per motor)

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2. Motor Selection and Power Requirements

Each motor (8) must provide at least 75 lbs (34 kg) of thrust. This depends on:

 Motor KV rating (RPM per Volt)

 Propeller size & efficiency
 Battery voltage

Example; Motor Selection

A high-power BLDC motor like the T-Motor U15II KV80 (used in large drones)
operates at 12S (44.4V) and produces 80 lbs (36.5 kg) of thrust per motor with a 40-
inch propeller.

 Voltage Range: 12S LiPo (44.4V)

 Current Draw per Motor: ~80A at max thrust
 Total Power Required:
o P=V×I=44.4V×80A=3.55 kW per motormotor
3.55×4=14.2 kW total power

3. Battery Selection

A 48V (12S LiPo or Li-ion pack) is a practical choice for a high-power quadcopter.

Battery Specs

 48V (12S LiPo)

 Capacity: ~30Ah - 40Ah (for ~10-15 min flight)
 Discharge Rate: 200A+ total continuous

Conclusion

 Voltage Required: 44.4V - 48V (12S LiPo)

 Motors: Large 80-100KV BLDC motors (e.g., T-Motor U15II KV80)
 Current Per Motor: ~80A
 Total Power Needed: 14-16 kW
 Battery: 12S LiPo, 30-40Ah, 200A+ discharge

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To power your quadcopter

To power your quadcopter carrying a 210-pound human,
you’ll need a carefully designed power system, including:
1. High-Power BLDC Motors
2. Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs)
3. Propeller Selection
4. Battery Configuration
5. Power Distribution System
6. Frame Considerations

1. High-Power BLDC Motors

Each motor must provide at least 150 lbs (68 kg) of thrust, so we need large, high-
efficiency, low KV motors.

Motor Recommendations

Motor Voltage Max Thrust (per motor) KV Rating Max Current

T-Motor U15II KV80 44.4V (12S) 165 lbs (75 kg) 80 KV ~80A
T-Motor U15II KV80 44.4V (12S) 80 lbs (36.5 kg) 80 KV ~80A
T-Motor U13 KV100 44.4V (12S) 132 lbs (60 kg) 100 KV ~65A
MAD M40 KV85 48V 160 lbs (72 kg) 85 KV ~75A

Best choice: T-Motor U15II KV80, since it provides 80 lbs thrust per motor with a 40-
inch propeller.

2. Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs)

Each BLDC motor requires an ESC that can handle high voltage (12S) and high
current (80A+ per motor).

ESC Recommendations
ESC Model Voltage Range Max Current Features
T-Motor Alpha 80A HV 12S (44.4V) 80A High efficiency
APD 100F3-X HV ESC 12S (48V) 100A High-power drones
ZTW Mantis 85A HV 12S (44.4V) 85A Active cooling

Best choice: APD 100F3-X HV ESC, as it supports high current loads reliably.

3. Propeller Selection

Large carbon fiber propellers (36-42 inches) are necessary to generate high thrust
efficiently.

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Propeller Recommendations

Prop Size Material Compatibility

T-Motor 40x13 CF 40x13" Carbon Fiber U15II KV80
XOAR PJP-T-L 38x12 38x12" Carbon Fiber U13 KV100
RC Carbon Fiber 42x15 42x15" Carbon Fiber U15II
Best choice: T-Motor 40x13 CF, optimized for the U15II motor.

4. Battery Configuration

A 12S (44.4V) LiPo or Li-ion battery with at least 30Ah capacity is required to
sustain flight.

Battery Recommendations

Battery Pack Voltage Capacity Discharge Rate

Tattu 12S 30Ah LiPo 44.4V 30Ah 200A (C-Rating: 10C)
Tattu 12S 40Ah LiPo 44.4V 40Ah 220A (C-Rating: 10C)
Custom Li-ion Pack 12S10P (Samsung 50S) 44.4V 50Ah 150A
Best choice: Tattu 12S 40Ah LiPo, as it provides enough capacity and discharge rate.

Flight Time Calculation (Estimate)

Flight Time=Battery Capacity (Ah)×60 Total /Current Draw (A)

 Battery: 40Ah
 Total Draw: ~300A

40 × 60300 = 8 min

With 2x parallel batteries (80Ah): 15 min flight time.

5. Power Distribution System (PDB)

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You need a custom Power Distribution Board (PDB) to handle 300A+.

Solution:

 Custom PCB or Bus Bars with 200A-rated connectors

 XT90 or AS150 connectors for battery input
 Thick copper traces (4oz copper) or aluminum bus bars

You can integrate the Battery Management System (BMS) into this PDB for
balance charging.

6. Frame Considerations

The frame must support 300+ lbs of total weight, so it should be:

 Lightweight but high-strength (Carbon Fiber/Aluminum)

 Large enough to fit 40-inch propellers
 Custom-built for weight optimization

Options:

1. Custom Carbon Fiber Frame (lightweight but expensive)

2. Aluminum Alloy Frame (durable but slightly heavier)
3.

Final System Summary

Component Specification
Motors T-Motor U15II KV80 (8x)
ESCs APD 100F3-X HV ESC (8x)
Propellers T-Motor 40x13 CF (8x)
Battery Tattu 12S 40Ah LiPo (1-2x for longer flight)
Power Distribution Custom PCB / Bus Bars
Frame Carbon Fiber / Aluminum Custom Frame

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Building a manned quadcopter

Building a manned quadcopter is not just about flight—it’s about pushing the
boundaries of technology, engineering, and design. But how do you go from a dream
to a real flying machine? Let me take you through the essential steps to make it
happen.

It all starts with the concept. For a manned quadcopter, the primary goal is to ensure
stability, safety, and the ability to lift a human being while maintaining control. This
involves choosing the right motor power, propeller size, and battery capacity to
carry the load. Every component needs to be carefully chosen and modeled.

First, we focus on the propulsion system. In our case, we’re using BLDC motors
because they offer the perfect balance between power and efficiency. For a manned
quadcopter, you’ll need motors that can lift anywhere from 300 to 500 pounds. This
means selecting the right motor size, propeller type, and making sure the battery
can supply enough energy for flight times of around 20-30 minutes.

Once we have the components selected, we move to the frame. We need something
lightweight but incredibly strong. Carbon fiber is perfect for this—it's durable,
lightweight, and resistant to stress. The frame also needs to be designed to handle the
vibrations and forces generated by high-powered motors and propellers.

Now that the frame is ready, we add the flight controller. This is the brain of the
quadcopter, responsible for maintaining stability during flight. The ESCs (electronic
speed controllers) manage the power sent to each motor based on inputs from the
flight controller. These need to be carefully tuned to handle the heavy load and
provide precise control, especially during takeoff and landing.

Weight distribution is crucial. We use static equilibrium calculations and mass

integrals to precisely determine the center of gravity and ensure the quadcopter
remains stable throughout flight. While a symmetrical motor layout helps with
balance, we also account for how the pilot’s weight, along with the shifting energy
consumption of the battery, will impact the overall balance as the craft moves through
different flight stages.

But stability isn’t the only concern. For safety, we’ve integrated an emergency
parachute system. This parachute is designed to deploy automatically in the unlikely
event of a critical failure. Whether it's a motor malfunction, a loss of power, or any
other issue that could jeopardize the flight, the parachute ensures the pilot can land
safely, giving them a reliable last-resort safety mechanism.

Now comes the tuning phase. The PID controller adjusts how the quadcopter
responds to control inputs. This is where we fine-tune everything in simulation mode
using Fast Fourier Transform, simulating flight behavior, stability, and responsiveness
before moving to real-world testing.

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After completing the virtual testing, we can finally move to real-world trials. The
quadcopter should be able to hover, take off, and perform precise maneuvers—just
like a regular drone, but with the added complexity of carrying a pilot.

Learn the fundamentals and

construct your own quadcopter
You can learn the fundamentals and construct your own quadcopter—a drone with
four motors—by using a great open-source guidebook from Carbon Aeronautics.

This is a sample from that handbook.

The creation of flying machines is a true engineering challenge and involves solving
several problems, from aerodynamics to power systems. In the case of a quadcopter,
you rely on four motors and propellers to provide enough thrust to start flying. Obvi-
ously, these are not the only necessary components. The figure to the left displays
the basic overview of a quadcopter with three major active building blocks:
• The radio control system, which consists of a radiotransmitter and a
receiver. The position of the sticks on the radiotransmitter are transformed
into commands and subsequently sent to the receiver that is situated on your
quadcopter.
• The flight control system, which consist of a microcontroller and some
sen-sors. The bare minimum you need to stabilize the quadcopter is an
orientation sensor, but you can add various other sensors (barometer, GPS,
ultrasonic,...) to make your flight easier. The information of your sensor and
the commands from your radiotransmitter are then processed in the
microcontroller, which is the brain of your quadcopter. The microcontroller
calculates the optimal speed of each of the four motors to keep the
quadcopter in the air.
• The third building block is the powertrain, which is the high current
part of the quadcopter. The battery is the power source of the whole system
and sends energy in the form of electrical current to four electronic speed
controllers (ESCs); an ESCs converts the provided current into current pulses,
with a pulse length proportional to the motor command sent from the
microcontroller. This gives a motor speed proportional to the motor
command and in turn, a certain thrust allowing you to take off!

Additional required tools and material

To complete your build, you also require some additional tools and material. Except
for a computer, these are only necessary when starting the actual build, not when

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testing the components in the first projects (except if you still need to solder headers
to your Teensy and sensors in order to test them on the breadboard).

• a soldering iron or station, to solder the motors wires, ESCs, resistors,

LEDs and male/ female headers to each other / the printed circuit
frame on you quad-copter frame.
• sufficient solder material.
• a soldering helping hand to clamp the parts you are soldering together.
• a wire stripper to strip the electrical insulation from the ESC and motor
wires.
• a wire cutter to cut the ESC and motor wires.
• a computer capable of running Arduino (see [Link]/en/software)
• two hex keys (1.5 mm and 2 mm)
• a multimeter to check for short-circuits or bad connections.

U15II Power Type Multi-Rotor UAV Motor KV80

and KV100 specification

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Equations for test data

The equations for test data results are as follows:

1. Electrical Power Input

The electrical power input is given by:

Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I)

Given:

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 Voltage = 50V
 Current = 19.1A

P = 50 × 19.1 = 955W

This is close to the given power value (995W), suggesting minor rounding differences
or additional system losses.

2. Mechanical Power Output

Mechanical power is given by:

P_mech = Torque (τ) × Angular Speed (ω)

Where:

 Torque (τ) = 4 Nm
 Angular speed (ω) in radians per second is calculated as:

ω = (1843 × 2 × π) ÷ 60
ω = 193.1 rad/s

Thus, the mechanical power is:

P_mech = 4 × 193.1 = 772.4W

3. Motor Efficiency

Motor efficiency (η) is given by:

η = (P_mech ÷ P_elec) × 100

Substituting values:

η = (772.4 ÷ 995) × 100 = 77.6%

This indicates that 77.6% of the electrical power is converted into mechanical power,
with the rest lost as heat and other inefficiencies.

4. Thrust-to-Power Ratio

The thrust-to-power ratio is calculated as:

T/P = Thrust (grams) ÷ Power (W)

Given:

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 Thrust = 8900 g
 Power = 995 W

T/P = 8900 ÷ 995 = 8.94 g/W

This confirms the given efficiency value.

5. Torque Constant (Kt)

The torque constant relates torque to current and is calculated as:

Kt = Torque (τ) ÷ Current (I)

Given:

 Torque = 4 Nm
 Current = 19.1A

Kt = 4 ÷ 19.1 = 0.21 Nm/A

6. Back EMF Constant (Ke)

The back EMF constant is given by:

Ke = Back EMF Voltage ÷ Angular Speed (ω)

Approximating the back EMF voltage as 50V at no load:

Ke = 50 ÷ 193.1 = 0.259 V·s/rad

Summary of Key Equations:

 Mechanical Power: P_mech = τ × ω

 Efficiency: η = (P_mech ÷ P_elec) × 100
 Torque Constant: Kt = τ ÷ I
 Back EMF Constant: Ke = Back EMF Voltage ÷ ω
 Power Calculation (995W)

7. Power (P) is usually calculated using the formula:

P = Voltage × Current

Given:

 Voltage = 50V
 Current = 19.1A

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P = 50 × 19.1 = 955W

However, the test data states 995W, which is 40W higher. The difference could be
due to additional losses such as resistive losses, switching losses in the controller, or
measurement approximations. The power was likely measured using a wattmeter,
which accounts for real power drawn rather than just multiplying voltage by current.

8. Efficiency Calculation (8.94 g/W)

Efficiency in grams per watt is calculated as:

Efficiency = Thrust (grams) / Power (W)

Given:

 Thrust = 8900g
 Power = 995W

Efficiency = 8900 ÷ 995 = 8.94 g/W

This confirms that the given efficiency value is correct.

9. Torque Calculation (4 Nm)

Torque (τ) is calculated using the formula:

Torque = Mechanical Power ÷ Angular Speed

First, convert RPM (revolutions per minute) to angular speed in radians per
second:

Angular Speed (ω) = (RPM × 2 × π) ÷ 60

Given:

 RPM = 1843

ω = (1843 × 2 × 3.1416) ÷ 60
ω = 193.1 rad/s

Now, calculate mechanical power:

Mechanical Power = Motor Efficiency × Electrical Power

Assuming the motor efficiency is 77.6% (from previous calculations):

Mechanical Power = 0.776 × 995 = 772.4W

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Now, using the formula:

Torque = Mechanical Power ÷ Angular Speed

Torque = 772.4 ÷ 193.1 = 4.0 Nm

This confirms that the 4 Nm torque value was obtained based on the mechanical
power and rotational speed.

The motor's maximum thrust is prop-dependent.

Note: According to the manufacturer's test results, the T-Motor U15II produces a
maximum thrust of 36 kg at full throttle and 60 volts. The motor's maximum thrust is
prop-dependent. The 36 kg rating is not the motor's physical limit; rather, it
represents the highest thrust achievable with a certain propeller and voltage/current
input. Manufacturers typically publish this number using a safe. efficient prop
(e.g.34x11.8) at a conservative voltage/current for thermal safety. (110 degrees C).
By extending the prop diameter from 34" to 40" (T= 36 kg x (40/34) ^4 = 68.8 kg),
you may achieve 68.8 kg thrust while maintaining optimum rpm and sufficient
current safely without the risk of motor thermal damage which is the case I use here
with Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The T-Motor U15II KV80 (used in massive
drones) runs on 12S (44.4V) and generates 75 kg of thrust per motor with a 40-inch
propeller. (as verified by ChatGPT). For a 95 kg pilot, the frame, battery, and
components weigh 41 kg each, for a total of 136 kg. The total thrust needed for a 2:1
ratio is 272 kg. The thrust per motor in a quad configuration is 68kg. Since 75 kg is
greater than 68 kg, not to include the 2:1 safety factor given, the T-Motor U15II
should produce sufficient thrust for liftoff. However, for redundancy in case of an
unlike motor failure 4 more motors should be added.

Final Summary

 The 995W power likely includes system losses or was measured directly with
a wattmeter.
 The 8.94 g/W efficiency was calculated as thrust (grams) divided by power
(watts).
 The 4 Nm torque was obtained from the mechanical power and angular
velocity in radians per second.

Illustrations of BLDC, Propellers, and ESC

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Total cost
1. Motors (4) 689.90 * 4 = $2759.60
2. Esc (4) 499.0 * 4 = $1996.00
3. Props (4 pairs) 448.9 * 2 = $ 897.80
Total = $5653.40

5520W eVTOL Motor Controller

Design
Motor Specifications: 50V, 5520W, 3191 RPM,
14 Nm

System Requirements Analysis

Power Calculations

 Rated Power: 5520W

 Operating Voltage: 50V nominal
 Rated Current: 5520W / 50V = 110.4A
 Peak Current: 150-200A (for startup/transients)
 Mechanical Speed: 3191 RPM
 Electrical Speed: 3191 × pole pairs (assume 14-pole = 22,337 electrical RPM)
 Torque: 14 Nm rated

Design Targets

 Efficiency: >95% at rated power

 Switching Frequency: 20-30 kHz (balance efficiency/EMI)
 Thermal Design: <80°C junction temperature
 Safety Factor: 1.5× on voltage, 1.8× on current ratings

Three-Phase Inverter Design

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Power MOSFET Selection

Recommended MOSFETs for 50V, 110A Application:

Primary Choice: IRFP4868PbF

 VDS: 100V (2× safety margin)

 ID: 200A at 25°C
 RDS(on): 2.9mΩ at 25°C
 Package: TO-247AC
 Gate Charge: 140nC
 Thermal Resistance: 0.75°C/W (junction to case)

Alternative: STB200NF10T4

 VDS: 100V
 ID: 200A at 25°C
 RDS(on): 2.8mΩ at 25°C
 Package: TO-263AB
 Gate Charge: 145nC

Power Loss Calculations

Conduction Losses (per MOSFET):

 RMS current per switch: 110A / √3 = 63.5A

 Conduction loss: I²RMS × RDS(on) × duty = 63.5² × 2.9mΩ × 0.5 = 5.85W

Switching Losses (per MOSFET at 25kHz):

 Turn-on loss: 0.5 × VDS × ID × ton × fsw

 Turn-off loss: 0.5 × VDS × ID × toff × fsw
 Estimated total switching loss: 8-12W per MOSFET

Total Power Loss per Phase:

 6 MOSFETs × (5.85W + 10W) = 95W per phase

 Total inverter losses: 285W
 Efficiency: (5520W - 285W) / 5520W = 94.8%

Gate Driver Circuit Design

Gate Driver IC: IR2110 (Bootstrap Half-Bridge Driver)

Bootstrap Circuit:

 Bootstrap capacitor: 10μF/25V ceramic (Murata GRM32ER71E106KA12L)

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 Bootstrap diode: UF4007 (1A, 1000V, fast recovery)
 Bootstrap resistor: 10Ω (current limiting)

Gate Drive Resistors:

 Turn-on resistor: 15Ω (balance speed vs EMI)

 Turn-off resistor: 10Ω (faster turn-off)
 Gate-source resistor: 10kΩ (noise immunity)

Gate Driver Power Supply:

 +15V/-5V dual supply for optimal switching

 Isolated DC-DC converter (Recom RH-1515D)
 Bypass capacitors: 100nF + 10μF per IC

Current Sensing Design

Shunt Resistor Method (Inline Sensing):

 Shunt Value: 0.5mΩ (Vishay WSL25120L000FEK)

 Power Rating: 3W
 Voltage Drop: 110A × 0.5mΩ = 55mV
 Current Sense Amplifier: Allegro ACS724-30AB-T
 Gain: 40V/V for 0-150A range

ADC Interface:

 ADC Range: 0-3.3V

 Resolution: 12-bit (0.8mV steps)
 Current Resolution: 55mV/150A × 0.8mV = 0.22A
 Sampling Rate: 100kHz (4× switching frequency)

Microcontroller Implementation
MCU Selection: STM32F407VGT6

Key Features:

 Core: ARM Cortex-M4F at 168MHz

 Flash: 1MB program memory
 RAM: 192KB
 Timers: Advanced motor control timers
 ADC: 3× 12-bit ADC, 2.4 MSPS
 Communication: 2× CAN, 6× USART, 3× SPI
 Package: LQFP100

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Peripheral Allocation:

 TIM1: Motor PWM generation (6 channels)

 TIM2: Speed measurement (encoder interface)
 TIM3: Control loop timing (10kHz)
 ADC1: Phase current sensing (3 channels)
 ADC2: DC bus voltage, temperature
 CAN1: System communication
 USART1: Debug/configuration interface

Control Algorithm Implementation

Motor Control Structure:

// Motor control parameters

#define PWM_FREQUENCY 25000 // 25kHz
#define CONTROL_FREQUENCY 10000 // 10kHz
#define MAX_DUTY_CYCLE 0.95 // 95% max duty
#define RATED_CURRENT 110.4 // Amperes
#define RATED_SPEED 3191 // RPM

// Control loop structure

typedef struct {
float speed_command; // RPM
float current_command; // Amperes
float speed_feedback; // RPM
float current_feedback[3]; // Phase currents
float duty_cycle[3]; // PWM duty cycles
uint16_t hall_state; // Hall sensor state
uint8_t commutation_step; // 0-5 for 6-step commutation
} motor_control_t;

// PI Controller structure
typedef struct {
float kp; // Proportional gain
float ki; // Integral gain
float integrator; // Integral term
float integrator_max; // Anti-windup limit
float output_max; // Output saturation
float output_min; // Output saturation
} pi_controller_t;

// Speed controller (outer loop)

pi_controller_t speed_controller = {
.kp = 0.5,
.ki = 2.0,
.integrator_max = 150.0, // Max current command
.output_max = 150.0,
.output_min = -150.0
};

// Current controller (inner loop)

pi_controller_t current_controller = {
.kp = 0.1,
.ki = 100.0,
.integrator_max = 0.95, // Max duty cycle

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.output_max = 0.95,
.output_min = -0.95
};

Control Loop Implementation:

void motor_control_loop(void) {
static motor_control_t motor;
float speed_error, current_error, current_magnitude;

// Read sensors
motor.hall_state = read_hall_sensors();
motor.current_feedback[0] = read_phase_current(0);
motor.current_feedback[1] = read_phase_current(1);
motor.current_feedback[2] = read_phase_current(2);
motor.speed_feedback = calculate_speed_from_hall();

// Calculate current magnitude

current_magnitude = sqrt(motor.current_feedback[0] *
motor.current_feedback[0] +
motor.current_feedback[1] *
motor.current_feedback[1] +
motor.current_feedback[2] *
motor.current_feedback[2]);

// Speed control loop (runs at 1kHz)

if (speed_control_counter++ >= 10) {
speed_error = motor.speed_command - motor.speed_feedback;
motor.current_command =
pi_controller_update(&speed_controller, speed_error);
speed_control_counter = 0;
}

// Current control loop (runs at 10kHz)

current_error = motor.current_command - current_magnitude;
float duty_magnitude = pi_controller_update(&current_controller,
current_error);

// Six-step commutation
motor.commutation_step =
hall_to_commutation_table[motor.hall_state];
generate_pwm_outputs(duty_magnitude, motor.commutation_step);

// Safety checks
if (current_magnitude > 200.0) {
emergency_shutdown();
}
if (motor.speed_feedback > 4000) {
emergency_shutdown();
}
}

// Six-step commutation table

const uint8_t hall_to_commutation_table[8] = {
0, // Invalid
0, // Hall = 001 -> Step 0
1, // Hall = 010 -> Step 1
2, // Hall = 011 -> Step 2
3, // Hall = 100 -> Step 3

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4, // Hall = 101 -> Step 4
5, // Hall = 110 -> Step 5
0 // Invalid
};

// PWM generation for six-step commutation

void generate_pwm_outputs(float duty, uint8_t step) {
// Clear all outputs first
HAL_TIM_PWM_Stop(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_1);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Stop(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_2);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Stop(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_3);

uint32_t duty_counts = (uint32_t)(duty * PWM_PERIOD);

switch(step) {
case 0: // A+, B-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_1, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_1);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_0, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
B- on
break;
case 1: // A+, C-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_1, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_1);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_2, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
C- on
break;
case 2: // B+, C-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_2, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_2);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_2, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
C- on
break;
case 3: // B+, A-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_2, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_2);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_1, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
A- on
break;
case 4: // C+, A-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_3, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_3);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_1, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
A- on
break;
case 5: // C+, B-
__HAL_TIM_SET_COMPARE(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_3, duty_counts);
HAL_TIM_PWM_Start(&htim1, TIM_CHANNEL_3);
HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOB, GPIO_PIN_0, GPIO_PIN_SET); //
B- on
break;
}
}

Buck Converter Design (50V to 12V)

Requirements

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 Input: 40-60V (battery voltage range)
 Output: 12V ± 2% (gate driver supply)
 Current: 5A (for gate drivers and auxiliaries)
 Efficiency: >90%
 Switching Frequency: 500kHz

Component Selection

Buck Controller IC: TI TPS54340

 Input Range: 4.5-42V (needs input divider for 50V)

 Output Current: 3.5A (parallel for higher current)
 Switching Frequency: Up to 2.5MHz
 Efficiency: >90% typical

Power Components:

 Input Capacitor: 470μF/75V electrolytic (Panasonic EEU-FR1H471)

 High-Side MOSFET: Integrated in TPS54340
 Low-Side MOSFET: Integrated in TPS54340
 Inductor: 4.7μH/8A (Coilcraft XAL7030-472MEB)
 Output Capacitor: 330μF/25V (Panasonic EEU-FR1E331)
 Feedback Resistors: 10kΩ + 2.2kΩ (1% precision)

Design Calculations

Duty Cycle: D = Vout/Vin = 12V/50V = 0.24 Inductor Ripple Current: ΔI = 20% ×

Iout = 1A Inductor Value: L = (Vin-Vout) × D / (ΔI × fsw) = 38V × 0.24 / (1A ×
500kHz) = 18.2μH Selected: 22μH (next standard value)

Output Capacitor: C = ΔI / (8 × fsw × ΔVout) = 1A / (8 × 500kHz × 0.12V) = 2.1μF

Selected: 330μF (much higher for better transient response)

Thermal Management
Heat Sink Design

Power Dissipation per Phase: 95W MOSFETs per Phase: 6 Heat Sink
Requirements: 0.5°C/W or better

Recommended Heat Sink: Aavid Thermalloy 6477BG

 Thermal Resistance: 0.45°C/W

 Dimensions: 100mm × 75mm × 25mm
 Mounting: TO-247 compatible
 Forced Air: 200 CFM fan required

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Thermal Interface Materials

Thermal Pads: Bergquist Sil-Pad K-10

 Thermal Conductivity: 3.5 W/m·K

 Thickness: 1.5mm
 Dielectric Strength: 4kV

Thermal Compound: Arctic Silver 5

 Thermal Conductivity: 7.5 W/m·K

 Application: Between MOSFET and heat sink

Temperature Monitoring

Thermistors: Vishay NTCS0603E3103JMT

 Resistance: 10kΩ at 25°C

 Beta: 3977K
 Accuracy: ±1%
 Placement: On heat sink near MOSFETs

PCB Design Guidelines

Layer Stack-up (6-layer PCB)

1. Top Layer: Component placement, high-current traces

2. Layer 2: Ground plane (analog ground)
3. Layer 3: Power planes (+50V, +12V, +5V)
4. Layer 4: Signal routing
5. Layer 5: Ground plane (digital ground)
6. Bottom Layer: Component placement, heat dissipation

High-Current Trace Design

Phase Output Traces:

 Width: 12mm (50A continuous current)

 Thickness: 2oz copper minimum
 Via Stitching: 0.3mm vias every 2mm
 Kelvin Connections: Separate sense traces for current shunts

Power Bus Design:

 +50V Bus: 15mm width, 4oz copper

 Ground Plane: Full plane on layer 2 and 5

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 Decoupling: 0.1μF ceramic every 10mm along power traces

EMI Mitigation

Shielding: Faraday cage around control electronics Filtering: Common mode chokes
on all power lines Layout: Minimize high-frequency current loops Grounding:
Single-point ground connection to chassis

Safety & Protection Features

Hardware Protection

Overcurrent Protection:

 Hardware Comparator: LM393 with 0.1ms response

 Threshold: 200A (1.8× rated current)
 Action: Immediate PWM shutdown via hardware

Overvoltage Protection:

 Zener Clamp: 62V Zener diode array

 Crowbar Circuit: SCR-based fast acting
 Threshold: 60V (1.2× rated voltage)

Thermal Protection:

 Hardware Shutdown: Analog temperature comparator

 Threshold: 85°C (silicon temperature)
 Hysteresis: 10°C cooling required for restart

Software Protection

Watchdog Timer: 10ms timeout, hardware reset Stack Overflow: Memory

protection unit monitoring Control Loop Monitoring: Execution time verification
Communication Timeout: 100ms CAN message timeout

Redundancy Implementation

Dual Controllers: Independent control systems Cross-Monitoring: Controllers

monitor each other Voting Logic: 2-out-of-3 decision making Graceful Degradation:
Reduced power operation

Testing Protocol
Component-Level Testing

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1. MOSFET Testing: Vgs, Vds, thermal characteristics
2. Gate Driver Testing: Rise/fall times, deadtime verification
3. Current Sensing: Accuracy, bandwidth, noise
4. Buck Converter: Efficiency, ripple, transient response

System-Level Testing

1. Motor Dynamometer: Torque-speed mapping

2. Efficiency Measurement: Calorimetric testing
3. Thermal Testing: Steady-state and transient
4. EMI Testing: Conducted and radiated emissions

Flight Testing Integration

1. Ground Testing: Tethered propeller testing

2. Static Testing: Full-power ground runs
3. Dynamic Testing: Flight envelope expansion
4. Reliability Testing: 100-hour endurance runs

Bill of Materials (Single Phase)

Power Electronics

 MOSFETs: 6× IRFP4868PbF @ $8.50 = $51.00

 Gate Drivers: 3× IR2110 @ $3.20 = $9.60
 Current Shunts: 3× WSL25120L000FEK @ $12.00 = $36.00
 Heat Sink: 1× Aavid 6477BG @ $35.00 = $35.00

Control Electronics

 Microcontroller: 1× STM32F407VGT6 @ $15.00 = $15.00

 Crystal: 1× 8MHz @ $2.00 = $2.00
 Capacitors: Various @ $25.00 = $25.00
 Resistors: Various @ $10.00 = $10.00

Power Supply

 Buck Controller: 1× TPS54340 @ $4.50 = $4.50

 Inductor: 1× XAL7030-472MEB @ $8.00 = $8.00
 Capacitors: Power supply @ $15.00 = $15.00

PCB & Assembly

 PCB: 6-layer, 100mm × 150mm @ $150.00 = $150.00

 Assembly: SMT + THT @ $100.00 = $100.00

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Total Cost per Controller: ~$461 Complete eVTOL (8 motors): ~$3,688

This design provides a robust, efficient motor controller specifically optimized for
your 5520W, 50V motor specifications with comprehensive safety features and
thermal management suitable for aviation applications.

Determine motor characteristics

using LTSpice

Determining motor characteristics if you decide to build a DIY

BLDC motor (for simulation Hall sensors are used as an option
using LTspice )

Professor Marcos Alonso is a distinguished educator and researcher known for his
Ability to bridge the gap between complex theoretical concepts and real-world
[Link] a deep passion for his field, he has dedicated his work to not only
advancingknowledgebutalsomakingitaccessibletoawideaudience.
Through his outstanding presentations, Professor Alonso has earned a reputation for
clarity,depth,and [Link] approach goes beyond traditional lecturing—he
Transforms intricate ideas into compelling narratives, allowing his audience to grasp
Challenging topics with [Link] discussing cutting-edge research,historical
breakthroughs,or emerging trends, his work consistently sparks curiosity and
Inspires intellectual exploration.

Test data results as published for the T-Motor U15II KV80 Bldc
Motor shall be used as a baseline

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eVTOL BLDC Motor Control System

Design
System Overview
The motor control system for an eVTOL consists of several key components working
together to provide precise, efficient, and safe motor control. The system must handle
high power levels while maintaining reliability and fault tolerance.

Core Components Architecture

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Battery Pack → Buck Converter → Half-Bridge Inverters → BLDC Motors
↓ ↓ ↓
Microcontroller ← Current/Voltage Sensors ← Position Sensors

BLDC Motor Driver Architecture

Three-Phase Inverter Design

Each BLDC motor requires a three-phase inverter consisting of three half-bridge

circuits. The inverter converts DC battery voltage to three-phase AC for motor control.

Key Requirements:

 Voltage Rating: 1.5-2x battery voltage for safety margin

 Current Rating: 1.5-2x motor peak current
 Switching Frequency: 10-50 kHz (balance between efficiency and EMI)
 Deadtime: 1-5 μs to prevent shoot-through
 Thermal Management: Adequate heat dissipation

Power MOSFET Selection Criteria

 Voltage Rating (VDS): Minimum 1.5x battery voltage

 Current Rating (ID): Minimum 1.5x motor peak current
 RDS(on): Low on-resistance for efficiency
 Gate Charge (Qg): Lower is better for switching losses
 Thermal Characteristics: Junction-to-case thermal resistance
 Package: TO-247, TO-220, or surface mount for high power

Recommended MOSFETs for eVTOL Applications:

 100V, 200A: IRFP4868PbF, STB200NF10T4

 150V, 120A: IRFP4321PbF, STB120NF15L4
 200V, 80A: IRFP4332PbF, STB80NF20T4

Gate Driver Design

Each MOSFET requires a dedicated gate driver for proper switching control.

Gate Driver Requirements:

 Bootstrap Circuit: For high-side MOSFETs

 Isolation: Optocoupler or isolated gate driver IC
 Drive Current: 1-4A peak for fast switching
 Deadtime Generation: Prevent shoot-through
 Fault Protection: Over-current, over-temperature

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Recommended Gate Driver ICs:

 IR2110: Classic half-bridge driver

 UCC27211: High-speed, low-side driver
 SI8271: Isolated gate driver
 LTC7004: Fault-protected gate driver

Microcontroller Selection & Architecture

MCU Requirements for eVTOL Applications

 Processing Power: ARM Cortex-M4F minimum, M7 preferred

 PWM Channels: 6 channels per motor (3 half-bridges × 2)
 ADC Channels: Current sensing, voltage monitoring, temperature
 Communication: CAN bus, UART, SPI for system integration
 Real-time Performance: Deterministic control loop timing
 Safety Features: Watchdog timers, memory protection
 Temperature Range: -40°C to +85°C automotive grade

Recommended Microcontrollers

STM32F4 Series (Popular Choice):

 STM32F407: 168MHz, FPU, motor control peripherals

 STM32F446: 180MHz, advanced timers, CAN
 Motor Control SDK: ST provides comprehensive libraries

TI C2000 Series (Motor Control Focused):

 TMS320F28377S: Dual-core, integrated analog

 TMS320F28069: Single-core, cost-effective
 MotorWare: TI's motor control software suite

NXP Kinetis Series:

 MK66FX1M0: 180MHz, extensive peripherals

 MKV58F1M0: Motor control optimized

Control Algorithm Implementation

// Simplified BLDC control loop structure
void motor_control_loop(void) {
// Read sensors
hall_position = read_hall_sensors();
current_feedback = read_current_sensors();

// Calculate next commutation

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commutation_table[hall_position];

// Speed control (PI controller)

speed_error = target_speed - actual_speed;
current_command = pi_controller(speed_error);

// Current control (PI controller)

current_error = current_command - current_feedback;
pwm_duty = pi_controller(current_error);

// Update PWM outputs

update_pwm_outputs(pwm_duty, commutation_state);

// Safety checks
check_overcurrent();
check_overtemperature();
}

Half-Bridge Phase Inverter Design

Circuit Topology

Each half-bridge consists of two MOSFETs in a totem-pole configuration with

bootstrap gate drive.

Component Selection:

 High-Side MOSFET: P-channel or N-channel with bootstrap

 Low-Side MOSFET: N-channel with direct drive
 Bootstrap Capacitor: 1-10 μF ceramic
 Bootstrap Diode: Fast recovery, low VF
 Gate Resistors: 10-100Ω for switching control
 Snubber Circuits: RC snubbers for EMI reduction

PCB Layout Considerations

Critical Design Rules:

 Minimize Loop Area: Keep power loops small

 Ground Planes: Separate analog and digital grounds
 Thermal Vias: Under MOSFETs for heat dissipation
 Current Sensing: Kelvin connections for accuracy
 EMI Shielding: Faraday cage for sensitive circuits

Current Sensing Implementation

Shunt Resistor Method:

 Low-side sensing: Simple but limited information

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 High-side sensing: Better control but complex
 Inline sensing: Three-phase current measurement
 Resistor Value: 0.1-1 mΩ for high current applications

Hall Effect Sensors:

 Advantages: Isolated, wide bandwidth

 Disadvantages: Cost, temperature drift
 Recommended: Allegro ACS712, LEM HAL series

Buck Converter Design

Purpose in eVTOL System

Buck converters provide regulated lower voltages for control electronics while the
main battery feeds the motor inverters directly.

Typical Voltage Rails:

 48V → 12V: Gate driver supplies

 48V → 5V: Microcontroller and sensors
 48V → 3.3V: Digital logic and communication

Buck Converter Topology

Synchronous Buck Converter (preferred for efficiency):

 Control IC: TI TPS54340, LT3845, or similar

 High-Side MOSFET: Fast switching, low RDS(on)
 Low-Side MOSFET: Synchronous rectification
 Inductor: Low DCR, appropriate saturation current
 Output Capacitor: Low ESR, adequate ripple rating

Design Calculations

Key Parameters:

 Duty Cycle: D = Vout/Vin

 Inductor Value: L = (Vin-Vout) × D / (ΔI × fsw)
 Output Capacitor: C = ΔI / (8 × fsw × ΔVout)
 Switching Frequency: 100kHz - 1MHz trade-off

Example 48V to 12V Buck Converter:

Input Voltage: 48V (nominal)

Output Voltage: 12V
Output Current: 10A

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Switching Frequency: 500kHz
Duty Cycle: 12V/48V = 0.25

Control Loop Design

Voltage Mode Control:

 Feedback Network: Resistor divider with reference

 Error Amplifier: Op-amp with compensation
 PWM Comparator: Sawtooth comparison
 Loop Compensation: Type II or Type III compensation

Current Mode Control:

 Advantages: Inherent current limiting, faster response

 Implementation: Current sensing resistor in series with inductor
 Slope Compensation: Required for duty cycles > 0.5

System Integration & Safety

Redundancy Architecture

Motor Controller Redundancy:

 Dual Controllers: Independent control systems per motor

 Voting Logic: 2-out-of-3 or similar fault tolerance
 Graceful Degradation: Reduced performance vs total failure
 Cross-monitoring: Controllers monitor each other

Fault Detection & Protection

Overcurrent Protection:

 Hardware: Fast-acting current sensing with shutdown

 Software: Integrated current monitoring with ramping
 Recovery: Automatic restart after fault clearing

Overvoltage Protection:

 Crowbar Circuit: SCR or MOSFET voltage clamping

 Regenerative Braking: Energy recovery during descent
 Battery Protection: BMS integration for cell protection

Thermal Protection:

 Temperature Sensors: Thermistors on MOSFETs and magnetics

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 Thermal Modeling: Predict junction temperatures
 Derating: Reduce power output with temperature

Communication & Control Interface

CAN Bus Implementation:

 Motor Status: Speed, current, temperature, faults

 Command Interface: Throttle, direction, enable/disable
 Diagnostic Data: Performance monitoring, maintenance
 Safety Messages: Emergency stop, fault conditions

Control Protocols:

 Standard CAN: 1 Mbps for real-time control

 CAN-FD: Higher bandwidth for diagnostic data
 Fail-safe: Default states for communication loss
 Encryption: Secure communication for safety-critical commands

Testing & Validation

Bench Testing Setup

Power Supply Requirements:

 High-current DC supply: 0-60V, 0-100A

 Electronic Load: Programmable current sink
 Isolation: Galvanic isolation for safety
 Monitoring: Oscilloscope, power analyzer

Test Procedures:

1. Static Testing: Verify PWM generation and deadtime

2. Dynamic Testing: Motor commutation and speed control
3. Fault Testing: Overcurrent, overvoltage, thermal
4. EMI Testing: Conducted and radiated emissions
5. Thermal Testing: Temperature rise under load

Motor Dynamometer Testing

Test Setup:

 Mechanical Load: Variable torque application

 Instrumentation: Torque sensor, speed encoder
 Data Acquisition: High-speed sampling system
 Safety: Emergency stop systems

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Performance Metrics:

 Efficiency Mapping: Power out vs power in

 Torque-Speed Curves: Performance envelope
 Thermal Characteristics: Steady-state temperatures
 Reliability Testing: Extended operation cycles

Flight Testing Integration

Progressive Testing:

 Ground Testing: Tethered operation

 Hover Testing: Vertical flight only
 Transition Testing: Hover to forward flight
 Envelope Expansion: Gradual performance increase

Data Recording:

 Control Inputs: Pilot commands, autopilot signals

 Motor Performance: Speed, current, temperature
 System Status: Voltages, fault conditions
 Flight Parameters: Altitude, airspeed, attitude

Supplier Recommendations
Power Electronics Components

MOSFETs:

 Infineon: CoolMOS, OptiMOS series

 STMicroelectronics: STripFET, MDmesh series
 Vishay: SiHF, TrenchFET series

Gate Drivers:

 Infineon: 1ED, 2ED series

 Texas Instruments: UCC series
 Analog Devices: ADuM series (isolated)

Microcontrollers & Development Tools

STMicroelectronics:

 STM32CubeIDE: Free development environment

 Motor Control Workbench: Automated code generation
 NUCLEO Boards: Evaluation and prototyping

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Texas Instruments:

 Code Composer Studio: Professional development environment

 MotorWare: Comprehensive motor control library
 LaunchPad Kits: Low-cost development boards

Passive Components

Magnetics:

 Coilcraft: Power inductors, transformers

 Würth Elektronik: Wide selection, good documentation
 TDK: Ferrite cores, inductors

Capacitors:

 Murata: Ceramic capacitors, wide voltage range

 Panasonic: Electrolytic capacitors, long life
 KEMET: Film capacitors, high ripple current

This comprehensive design guide provides the foundation for developing robust
motor control systems for your eVTOL. Each subsystem requires careful attention to
safety, redundancy, and performance optimization.

This code can be uploaded in Teensy ready to use. This code implements Kalman
filters for roll, pitch, and yaw angles using accelerometer and gyroscope data, and

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then applies PID control for each axis to stabilize the quadcopter/UAP drone. You can
tune the PID parameters for each axis using the serial monitor.

#include <Wire.h>
#include <Servo.h>
#include "MPU6050.h"

// Dave's Flight Controller This code implements Kalman filters for roll, pitch, and
//yaw angles using accelerometer and gyroscope data, and then applies PID control
// for each axis to stabilize the quadcopter/UAP drone. You can tune the PID
//parameters for each axis using the serial monitor.

// Pin assignments for ESCs (PWM outputs)

Servo esc1, esc2, esc3, esc4;

// MPU6050 initialization
MPU6050 mpu;

// PID variables for each axis (Pitch, Roll, Yaw)

float Kp_pitch = 1.0, Ki_pitch = 0.5, Kd_pitch = 0.1;
float Kp_roll = 1.0, Ki_roll = 0.5, Kd_roll = 0.1;
float Kp_yaw = 1.0, Ki_yaw = 0.5, Kd_yaw = 0.1;

float setpoint_pitch = 0, setpoint_roll = 0, setpoint_yaw = 0;

float input_pitch = 0, input_roll = 0, input_yaw = 0;
float output_pitch = 0, output_roll = 0, output_yaw = 0;

float integral_pitch = 0, integral_roll = 0, integral_yaw = 0;

float lastError_pitch = 0, lastError_roll = 0, lastError_yaw = 0;

// Kalman filter variables for yaw, pitch, and roll

float angle_roll = 0, angle_pitch = 0, angle_yaw = 0;
float gyroRate_roll = 0, gyroRate_pitch = 0, gyroRate_yaw = 0;
float bias_roll = 0, bias_pitch = 0, bias_yaw = 0;

float P_roll[2][2] = {{1, 0}, {0, 1}}, P_pitch[2][2] = {{1, 0}, {0, 1}}, P_yaw[2][2] = {{1, 0}, {0, 1}};
float K_roll[2], K_pitch[2], K_yaw[2];
float y_roll, y_pitch, y_yaw;
float S_roll, S_pitch, S_yaw;
float Q_angle = 0.001, Q_bias = 0.003, R_measure = 0.03; // Process and measurement noise

unsigned long lastTime = 0;

const unsigned long interval = 10; // PID loop every 10ms

void setup() {
[Link](9600);
[Link]();
[Link]();

[Link](3); [Link](4); [Link](5); [Link](6);

delay(2000); // Allow ESCs to arm

[Link]("Quadcopter PID Control Ready");

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// Timer interrupt to maintain regular PID loop
IntervalTimer pidTimer;
[Link](pidLoop, interval); // PID loop every 10ms
}

void loop() {
updateSerial(); // Optional PID tuning via Serial
readIMU(); // Get IMU values
}

void readIMU() {
// Read raw IMU data
int16_t ax, ay, az, gx, gy, gz;
mpu.getMotion6(&ax, &ay, &az, &gx, &gy, &gz);

// Convert accelerometer data to angles (simple method)

input_pitch = (float)ay / 16384.0; // Simple conversion (replace with filter for better
accuracy)
input_roll = (float)ax / 16384.0;

// Kalman filter for yaw, pitch, and roll (using gyroscope and accelerometer)
gyroRate_roll = (float)gx / 131.0; // Convert gyro data (replace with your gyro scaling factor)
gyroRate_pitch = (float)gy / 131.0;
gyroRate_yaw = (float)gz / 131.0;

// Use Kalman filter to estimate roll, pitch, and yaw angles

float dt = interval / 1000.0; // Time difference in seconds

// --- Roll ---

angle_roll += dt * (gyroRate_roll - bias_roll);
float accelRoll = atan2(ay, az) * 180 / PI; // Estimate angle using accelerometer
y_roll = accelRoll - angle_roll; // Residual (difference between accelerometer and predicted
angle)
S_roll = P_roll[0][0] + R_measure; // Innovation
K_roll[0] = P_roll[0][0] / S_roll; // Kalman gain for angle
K_roll[1] = P_roll[1][0] / S_roll; // Kalman gain for bias
angle_roll += K_roll[0] * y_roll;
bias_roll += K_roll[1] * y_roll;

float P00_temp = P_roll[0][0];

P_roll[0][0] -= K_roll[0] * P_roll[0][0];
P_roll[0][1] -= K_roll[0] * P_roll[0][1];
P_roll[1][0] -= K_roll[1] * P_roll[0][0];
P_roll[1][1] -= K_roll[1] * P_roll[0][1];

// --- Pitch ---

angle_pitch += dt * (gyroRate_pitch - bias_pitch);
float accelPitch = atan2(ax, az) * 180 / PI; // Estimate angle using accelerometer
y_pitch = accelPitch - angle_pitch; // Residual (difference between accelerometer and
predicted angle)
S_pitch = P_pitch[0][0] + R_measure; // Innovation
K_pitch[0] = P_pitch[0][0] / S_pitch; // Kalman gain for angle
K_pitch[1] = P_pitch[1][0] / S_pitch; // Kalman gain for bias
angle_pitch += K_pitch[0] * y_pitch;
bias_pitch += K_pitch[1] * y_pitch;

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P00_temp = P_pitch[0][0];
P_pitch[0][0] -= K_pitch[0] * P_pitch[0][0];
P_pitch[0][1] -= K_pitch[0] * P_pitch[0][1];
P_pitch[1][0] -= K_pitch[1] * P_pitch[0][0];
P_pitch[1][1] -= K_pitch[1] * P_pitch[0][1];

// --- Yaw ---

angle_yaw += dt * (gyroRate_yaw - bias_yaw);
float accelYaw = atan2(ay, ax) * 180 / PI; // Estimate angle using accelerometer
y_yaw = accelYaw - angle_yaw; // Residual (difference between accelerometer and
predicted angle)
S_yaw = P_yaw[0][0] + R_measure; // Innovation
K_yaw[0] = P_yaw[0][0] / S_yaw; // Kalman gain for angle
K_yaw[1] = P_yaw[1][0] / S_yaw; // Kalman gain for bias
angle_yaw += K_yaw[0] * y_yaw;
bias_yaw += K_yaw[1] * y_yaw;

P00_temp = P_yaw[0][0];
P_yaw[0][0] -= K_yaw[0] * P_yaw[0][0];
P_yaw[0][1] -= K_yaw[0] * P_yaw[0][1];
P_yaw[1][0] -= K_yaw[1] * P_yaw[0][0];
P_yaw[1][1] -= K_yaw[1] * P_yaw[0][1];

// Output the angles (roll, pitch, yaw)

input_roll = angle_roll;
input_pitch = angle_pitch;
input_yaw = angle_yaw;
}

void pidLoop() {
// Calculate PID for each axis
// --- PITCH ---
float error_pitch = setpoint_pitch - input_pitch;
integral_pitch += error_pitch * (interval / 1000.0);
float derivative_pitch = (error_pitch - lastError_pitch) / (interval / 1000.0);
output_pitch = Kp_pitch * error_pitch + Ki_pitch * integral_pitch + Kd_pitch *
derivative_pitch;
lastError_pitch = error_pitch;

// --- ROLL ---

float error_roll = setpoint_roll - input_roll;
integral_roll += error_roll * (interval / 1000.0);
float derivative_roll = (error_roll - lastError_roll) / (interval / 1000.0);
output_roll = Kp_roll * error_roll + Ki_roll * integral_roll + Kd_roll * derivative_roll;
lastError_roll = error_roll;

// --- YAW ---

float error_yaw = setpoint_yaw - input_yaw;
integral_yaw += error_yaw * (interval / 1000.0);
float derivative_yaw = (error_yaw - lastError_yaw) / (interval / 1000.0);
output_yaw = Kp_yaw * error_yaw + Ki_yaw * integral_yaw + Kd_yaw * derivative_yaw;
lastError_yaw = error_yaw;

// Output to ESCs

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int pwm_pitch = constrain(1500 + output_pitch, 1000, 2000);
int pwm_roll = constrain(1500 + output_roll, 1000, 2000);
int pwm_yaw = constrain(1500 + output_yaw, 1000, 2000);

// Assign PWM values to ESCs

[Link](pwm_pitch);
[Link](pwm_roll);
[Link](pwm_yaw);
[Link](pwm_pitch);
}

void updateSerial() {
if ([Link]()) {
String cmd = [Link]('\n');
[Link]();
if ([Link]("Kp_pitch=")) Kp_pitch = [Link](9).toFloat();
else if ([Link]("Ki_pitch=")) Ki_pitch = [Link](9).toFloat();
else if ([Link]("Kd_pitch=")) Kd_pitch = [Link](9).toFloat();
}
}

Motor Control Solution

Sensorless algorthm solutuion

tm
InstaSPIN - BLDC

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