Discrete Mathematics (MTH202)

LECTURE # 26

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION:
A proof by contradiction is based on the fact that either a statement is true or it is false
but not both. Hence the supposition, that the statement to be proved is false, leads
logically to a contradiction, impossibility or absurdity, then the supposition must be false.
Accordingly, the given statement must be true.
This method of proof is also known as reductio ad absurdum because it relies on reducing
a given assumption to an absurdity.
Many theorems in mathematics are conditional statements (p→q). Now the negation of
he implication p→q is
~(p→q) ≡ ~(~p∨q)
≡ ~(~p) ∧ (~q) DeMorgan’s Law
≡ p ∧ ~q
Clearly if the implication is true, then its negation must be false, i.e., leads to a
contradiction.
Hence p→q≡ (p ∧ ~q) → c
where c is a contradiction.
Thus to prove an implication p→q by contradiction method we suppose that the condition
p and the negation of the conclusion q, i.e., (p ∧ ~q) is true and ultimately arrive at a
contradiction.
The method of proof by contradiction, may be summarized as follows:
1. Suppose the statement to be proved is false.
2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.
3. Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.
THEOREM:
There is no greatest integer.
PROOF:
Suppose there is a greatest integer N. Then n ≤ N for every integer n.
Let M=N+1
Now M is an integer since it is a sum of integers.
Also M > N since M = N + 1
Thus M is an integer that is greater than the greatest integer, which is a contradiction.
Hence our supposition is not true and so there is no greatest integer.
EXERCISE:
Give a proof by contradiction for the statement:
2
“If n is an even integer then n is an even integer.”

PROOF:
2
Suppose n is an even integer and n is not even, so that n is odd.
Hence n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
2 2
Now n = (2k + 1)
2
= 4k + 4k + 1
2
= 2·(2k + 2k) + 1

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2
= 2r + 1 where r = (2k + 2k) ∈Z
2 2
This shows that n is odd, which is a contradiction to our supposition that n is even.
Hence the given statement is true.
EXERCISE:
3
Prove that if n is an integer and n + 5 is odd, then n is even using
contradiction method.
SOLUTION:
3
Suppose that n + 5 is odd and n is not even (odd). Since n is odd and the
2 3 2
product of two odd numbers is odd, it follows that n is odd and n = n . n is odd. Further,
since the difference of two odd number is even, it follows that
3 3
5 = (n + 5) - n
3
is even. But this is a contradiction. Therefore, the supposition that n + 5 and n are both
odd is wrong and so the given statement is true.
EXERCISE:
Prove by contradiction method, the statement: If n and m are odd integers,
then n + m is an even integer.
SOLUTION:
Suppose n and m are odd and n + m is not even (odd i.e by taking
contradiction).
Now n = 2p + 1 for some integer p
and m = 2q + 1 for some integer q
Hence n + m = (2p + 1) + (2q + 1)
= 2p + 2q + 2 = 2· (p + q + 1)
which is even, contradicting the assumption that n + m is odd.
THEOREM:
The sum of any rational number and any irrational number is irrational.

PROOF:
We suppose that the negation of the statement is true. That is, we suppose that there is a
rational number r and an irrational number s such that r + s is rational. By definition of
ration

a
r=
b
……………(1)
and

……………(2)
c
r+s=
d

for some integers a, b, c and d with b≠ 0 and d ≠ 0.

Using (1) in (2), we get

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a c
+s=
b d
c a
⇒ s= −
d b
bc − ad
s= (bd ≠ 0)
bd

Now bc - ad and bd are both integers, since products and difference of integers are
integers. Hence s is a quotient of two integers bc-ad and bd with bd ≠ 0. So by definition
of rational, s is rational.
This contradicts the supposition that s is irrational. Hence the supposition is false and the
theorem is true.

EXERCISE:
Prove that 2 is irrational.
PROOF:
Suppose 2
is rational. Then there are integers m and n with no common factors so that
m
2=
n
Squaring both sides gives

m2
2=
n2
2 2
Or m = 2n ………………………(1)
2
This implies that m is even (by definition of even). It follows that m is even. Hence
m=2k for some integer k (2)
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
2 2
(2k) = 2n
2 2
⇒ 4k = 2n
2 2
⇒ n = 2k
2
This implies that n is even, and so n is even. But we also know that m is even. Hence
both m and n have a common factor 2. But this contradicts the supposition that m and n
have no common factors. Hence our supposition is false and so the theorem is true.
Substituting (2) in (1), we get
2 2
(2k) = 2n
2 2
⇒ 4k = 2n
2 2
⇒ n = 2k

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2
This implies that n is even, and so n is even. But we also know that m is even. Hence
both m and n have a common factor 2. But this contradicts the supposition that m and n
have no common factors. Hence our supposition is false and so the theorem is true.

EXERCISE:
Prove by contradiction that 6 − 7 2 is irrational.

PROOF:
Suppose 6 − 7 2 is rational.
Then by definition of rational,
a
6−7 2 =
b
for some integers a and b with b≠0.
Now consider,
a
7 2 = 6−
b
6b − a
⇒ 7 2=
b
6b − a
⇒ 2=
7b
Since a and b are integers, so are 6b-a and 7b and 7b≠0;
hence 2 is a quotient of the two integers 6b-a and 7b with 7b≠0.
Accordingly, 2 is rational (by definition of rational).
This contradicts the fact because 2 is irrational.
Hence our supposition is false and so 6 − 7 2 is irrational.

EXERCISE:
Prove that 2 + 3 is irrational.
SOLUTION:
Suppose 2 + 3 is rational. Then, by definition of rational, there exists
integers a and b with b≠0 such that
a
2+ 3=
b

Squaring both sides, we get

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a2
2+3+ 2 2 3 = 2
b
a2
⇒ 2 2×3 = 2 − 5
b
a 2 − 5b 2
⇒ 2 6=
b2
a 2 − 5b 2
⇒ 6=
2b 2
2 2 2 2
Since a and b are integers, so are therefore a - 5b and 2b with 2b ≠0. Hence 6 is the
2 2 2 2
quotient of two integers a - 2b and 2b with 2 ≠0. Accordingly, 6 is rational. But this
is a contradiction, since 6 is not rational. Hence our supposition is false and so
2 + 3 is irrational.

REMARK:
The sum of two irrational numbers need not be irrational in general for

(6 − 7 2 ) + (6 + 7 2 ) = 6 + 6 = 12
which is rational.

EXERCISE:
Prove that for any integer a and any prime number p, if p|a, then
P (a + 1).

PROOF:
Suppose there exists an integer a and a prime number p such that p|a and p|(a+1).
Then by definition of divisibility there exist integer r and s so that
a = p·r and a + 1 = p·s
It follows that
1 = (a + 1) - a
= p·s - p·r
= p·(s-r) where s – r € Z
This implies p|1.
But the only integer divisors of 1 are 1 and -1 and since p is prime p>1. This is a
contradiction.
Hence the supposition is false, and the given statement is true.
THEOREM:
The set of prime numbers is infinite.

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PROOF:
Suppose the set of prime numbers is finite.
Then, all the prime numbers can be listed, say, in ascending order:
p1 = 2, p2 = 3, p3 = 5, p4 = 7, …, pn
Consider the integer
N = p1.p2.p3. … . pn + 1
Then N > 1. Since any integer greater than 1 is divisible by some prime number p,
therefore p | N.
Also since p is prime, p must equal one of the prime numbers
p1, p2, p3, … , pn .
Thus
P | (p1, p2, p3, … , pn)

But then
P (p1, p2, p3, … , pn+ 1)

So P N

Thus p | N and p N, which is a contradiction.

Hence the supposition is false and the theorem is true.

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITION:
A proof by contraposition is based on the logical equivalence between a statement and its
contrapositive. Therefore, the implication p→ q can be proved by showing that its
contrapositive ~ q → ~ p is true. The contrapositive is usually proved directly.
The method of proof by contrapositive may be summarized as:
1. Express the statement in the form if p then q.
2. Rewrite this statement in the contrapositive form
if not q then not p.
3. Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.

EXERCISE:
2
Prove that for all integers n, if n is even then n is even.
PROOF:
The contrapositive of the given statement is:
2
“if n is not even (odd) then n is not even (odd)”
We prove this contrapositive statement directly.
Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some k € Z
2 2 2
Now n = (2k+1) = 4k + 4k + 1
2
= 2·(2k + 2k) + 1
2
= 2·r + 1 where r = 2k + 2k € Z
2
Hence n is odd. Thus the contrapositive statement is true and so the given statement is
true.

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EXERCISE:
Prove that if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

PROOF:
The contrapositive of the given conditional statement is
“ if n is even then 3n + 2 is even”
Suppose n is even, then
n = 2k for some k €Z
Now 3n + 2 = 3 (2k) + 2
= 2. (3k + 1)
= 2.r where r = (3k + 1) € Z
Hence 3n + 2 is even. We conclude that the given statement is true since its
contrapositive is true.
EXERCISE:
3
Prove that if n is an integer and n + 5 is odd, then n is even.

PROOF:
Suppose n is an odd integer. Since, a product of two odd integers is odd,
2 3 2
therefore n = n.n is odd; and n = n .n is odd.
2
Since a sum of two odd integers is even therefore n + 5 is even.
3
Thus we have prove that if n is odd then n + 5 is even.
Since this is the contrapositive of the given conditional statement, so the given statement
is true.
EXERCISE:
2
Prove that if n is not divisible by 25, then n is not divisible by 5.
SOLUTION:
The contra positive statement is:
2
“if n is divisible by 5, then n is divisible by 25”
Suppose n is divisible by 5. Then by definition of divisibility
n = 5·k for some integer k
Squaring both sides
2 2 2
n = 25·k where k € Z
2
n is divisible by 25
EXERCISE:
Prove that if |x| > 1 then x > 1 or x < -1 for all x € R.

PROOF:
The contrapositive statement is:
if x ≤ 1 and x≥-1 then |x| ≤ 1 for x € R.
Suppose that x ≤1 and x ≥-1
⇒ x ≤1 and x ≥ -1
⇒ -1≤ x ≤ 1
and so
|x| ≤1
Equivalently |x| > 1

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EXERCISE:
Prove the statement by contraposition:
For all integers m and n, if m + n is even then m and n are both even or m and n are both
odd.
PROOF:
The contrapositive statement is:
“For all integers m and n, if m and n are not both even and m and n are not both odd, then
m + n is not even.
Or more simply,
“For all integers m and n, if one of m and n is even and the other is odd, then m + n is
odd”
Suppose m is even and n is odd. Then
m = 2p for some integer p
and n = 2q + 1 for some integer q
Now m + n = (2p) + (2q + 1)
= 2·(p+q) + 1
= 2·r + 1 where r = p+q is an integer
Hence m + n is odd.
Similarly, taking m as odd and n even, we again arrive at the result that m + n is odd.
Thus, the contrapositive statement is true. Since an implication is logically equivalent to
its contrapositive so the given implication is true.

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