Quality Engineering Training Programme

SPECIALLY PREPARED

FOR

M/s. Anand University

By

NETTUR TECHNICAL TRAINING FOUNDATION

23/24, II Phase, Peenya Industrial Area
Bangalore – 560058
Website: [Link]
[Link] Content Page no

1.0 Quality 1

2.0 TQM 2

3.0 Metrology 4

4.0 Systematic Problem solving 6

4.1 Problem solving steps 6

4.2 7 QC Tools 7

4.2.1 Pareto diagram 8

4.2.2 Cause and effect diagram 10

4.2.3 Histogram 13

4.2.4 Control charts 16

4.2.5 Scatter diagram 17

4.2.6 Graphs 19

4.2.7 Check sheets 20

4.2.8 Stratification 20

5.0 Sampling inspection 22

5.1 Theory of probability 22

5.2 Permutation and Combination 25

5.3 Types of distributions 26

5.3.1 Binomial Probability 27

5.3.2 Poisson’s distribution 28

5.4 Sampling plans 28

5.4.1 Acceptance Sampling 29

5.4.2 Sampling Methods 31

5.4.3 Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) 34

5.4.4 OC Curve 37

6.0 Statistical Process control (SPC) 42

6.1 Sampling Strategy 43

6.1.1 Measure of central tendency 45

6.1.2 Measure of Dispersion 47

6.2 Control charts Types 48

6.2.1 X bar Range chart 50

6.3 Process capability 56

6.3.1 Process capability study steps 59

6.3.2 Process capability indices 61

6.4 Control plans 64

7.0 Machining Processes 66

7.1.1 Drilling 66

7.1.2 Drilling Machines 69

7.1.3 Milling 75

7.2 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 79

7.3 Wire cut EDM 81

8.0 Engineering Materials 82

8.1 Classes of Engineering Materials 83

8.1.1 Steels 86

8.1.2 Indian standard designation system 90

9.0 Heat Treatment 93

9.1.1 Micro constituents of steel 93

9.1.2 Iron carbon equilibrium diagram 97

9.1.3 Heat Treatment processes 100

10.0 Welding 109

11.0 Forging 112

12.0 Casting 115

12.1 Casting defects causes and remedies 121

12.3 Injection Molding 125

 1.0. Quality
 Quality is not fine-tuning your product at the final stage of manufacturing.
 Quality is in-built into the product at every stage

Historical development of quality Management

The development of quality management can be defined in four stages:
 Quality inspection stage (QI) – 1920s;
 Quality control stage (QC) – 1950s;
 Quality assurance stage (QA) – 1970s;
 Total Quality management (TQM)stage

Performance objectives of Quality

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Quality of defects
Defect
Non conformance of a unit of a product with specified requirements
 Minor- Unnoticeable
 Major- Cause stoppage of operations, may affect performance
 Critical- Must be attended to Promptly
Causes of Defects
 lack of Know How
 carelessness
 Improper Designs
 Lack of or insufficient instructions
 Inherent errors in RM,MACHINES
2.0. TQM (Total Quality Management
 Total Quality Management means that the organization's culture is defined by
and supports the constant attainment of customer satisfaction through an
integrated system of tools, techniques, and training.
 This involves the continuous improvement of organizational processes, resulting
in high quality products and services.
Goal of TQM
Do the right things right the first time, every time.
Basic tenets of TQM
 The customer makes the ultimate determination of quality.

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  Top management must provide leadership and support for all quality
initiatives.
 Preventing variability is the key to producing high quality.
 Quality goals are a moving target, thereby requiring a commitment toward
continuous improvement.
 Improving quality requires the establishment of effective metrics. We must
speak with data and facts not just opinions.
Aspects of TQM

TQM System

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 3.0. Metrology
 Metrology is the science of measurements. In metrology we are primarily
concerned with methods of measurements, based on agreed units and
standards.
 Precision measurement not only involves dimensional measurements but also
measurements of form and other geometrically related errors.
 The instruments and the measuring methods depend on various factors such
as the size of the component, degree of accuracy required, number of
components to be inspected.
Measurement Standards

Measurements always involve a comparison or in other words we require some

sort of standard to quantify the process or machine being measured.
Classification of standards

Primary Length Standards-Also known as International standards and are used as

master standards

Secondary Length Standards-Replica of primary standard, available to general

public under supervision of governments

Tertiary Length Standards-Used in industries and laboratories

Working Standards – Used in common workshops.

Standard Lab

• Temperature - to 20°C ± .006°C

• Humidity - to 40% RH ± 2% RH
• Cleanliness - to class 1,000
• Air Velocity - less than 20 FPM
• Air Pressure - positive to surrounding environment

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ISO Standard 14644-1 Class Limits

ISO
Maximum concentration limits( Particles/m3 of air) for particles equal
Classification
to and larger than the considered sizes shown below
Number

>= 0.1µm >= 0.2m >= 0.3µm >= 0.5µm >= 1µm >= 5.0µm

ISO Class 1 10 2

ISO Class 2 100 24 10 4

ISO Class 3 1000 237 102 35 8

ISO Class 4 10000 2370 1020 352 83

ISO Class 5 100000 23700 10200 3520 832 29

ISO Class 6 1000000 237000 102000 35200 8320 293

ISO Class 7 352000 83200 2930

ISO Class 8 3520000 832000 29300

ISO Class 9 35200000 8320000 293000

 A class 1000 clean room has less than 1000 particles of 0.1 micron per cubic
foot.
 It is equivalent to an ISO class 3 clean room.
 This clean room has 600 square feet of class 1000 space available.

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 4.0. Systematic Problem Solving
What is a Problem?

 A Problem is a Bad Output of any Process.

 A Problem is anything that causes inconvenience to the Customer.

What do you do with a Problem?

Some known approaches:
 Intuition
 Experience
 Experimental Research.
 Step by Step method of Solving Problems

4.1. Problem solving steps

1. Problem Identification
2. Problem Selection
3. Problem Definition
4. Problem analysis
5. Cause Identification
6. Root Cause Identification
7. Data Analysis
8. Developing solutions
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 9. Foreseeing Resistance
10. Trial implementation
11. Regular implementation
12. Follow Up / Review
P-D-C-A cycle – 4 Steps:

4.2. 7QC Tools

Introduction

 The 7 QC Tools are simple statistical tools used for problem solving.
These tools were either developed in Japan or introduced to Japan by
the Quality Gurus such as Deming and Juran.

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  In terms of importance, these are the most useful. Kaoru Ishikawa has
stated that these 7 tools can be used to solve 95 percent of all
problems.
 These tools have been the foundation of Japan's astonishing industrial
resurgence after the Second World War.

The following are the 7 QC Tools:

1. Pareto Diagram
2. Cause & Effect Diagram
3. Histogram
4. Control Charts
5. Scatter Diagrams
6. Graphs
7. Check Sheets
4.2.1. Pareto Diagram

 Pareto Diagram is a tool that arranges items in the order of the

magnitude of their contribution, thereby identifying a few items
exerting maximum influence.
 This tool is used in SPC and quality improvement for prioritizing projects
for improvement, prioritizing setting up of corrective action teams to
solve problems, identifying products on which most complaints are
received, identifying the nature of complaints occurring most often,
identifying most frequent causes for rejections or for other similar
purposes.
 The origin of the tool lies in the observation by an Italian economist
Vilfredo Pareto that a large portion of wealth was in the hands of a few
people.
 He observed that such distribution pattern was common in most fields.
Pareto principle also known as the 80/20 rule is used in the field of
materials management for ABC analysis.

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  20% of the items purchased by a company account for 80% of the
value. These constitute the A an item on which maximum attention is
paid.
 [Link] suggested the use of this principle to quality control for
separating the "vital few" problems from the "trivial many"

Procedure:

The steps in the preparation of a Pareto Diagram are:

1. From the available data calculate the contribution of each individual

item.

2. Arrange the items in descending order of their individual contributions.

If there are too many items contributing a small percentage of the
contribution, group them together as "others". It is obvious that "others"
will contribute more than a few single individual items. Still it is kept last
in the new order of items.

3. Tabulate the items, their contributions in absolute number as well as in

percent of total and cumulative contribution of the items.

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 4. Draw X and Y axes. Various items are represented on the X-axis. Unlike
other graphs Pareto Diagrams have two Y-axes - one on the left
representing numbers and the one on right representing the percent
contributions. The scale for X-axis is selected in such a manner that all
the items including others are accommodated between the two Y-
axes. The scales for the Y-axes are so selected that the total number of
items on the left side and 100% on the right side occupy the same
height.

5. Draw bars representing the contributions of each item.

6. Plot points for cumulative contributions at the end of each item. A

simple way to do this is to draw the bars for the second and each
subsequent item at their normal place on the X-axis as well as at a level
where the previous bar ends. This bar at the higher level is drawn in
dotted lines. Drawing the second bar is not normally recommended in
the texts.

7. Connect the points. If additional bars as suggested in step 6 are drawn

this becomes simple. All one needs to do is - connect the diagonals of
the bars to the origin.

8. The chart is now ready for interpretation.

4.2.2. Cause & Effect Diagram

 A Cause-and Effect Diagram is a tool that shows systematic relationship

between a result or a symptom or an effect and its possible causes.
 It is an effective tool to systematically generate ideas about causes for
problems and to present these in a structured form.
 This tool was devised by Dr. Kouro Ishikawa and as mentioned earlier is
also known as Ishikawa Diagram.

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Structure

 Another name for the tool, as we have seen earlier, is Fish-Bone

Diagram due to the shape of the completed structure.
 If we continue the analogy, we can term various parts of the diagram
as spine or the backbone, large bones, middle bones and small bones
as seen in the structure of cause-and-effect diagram.

 The symptom or result or effect for which one wants to find causes is
put in the dark box on the right. The lighter boxes at the end of the
large bones are main groups in which the ideas are classified.
 Usually four to six such groups are identified. In a typical manufacturing
problem, the groups may consist of five Ms - Men, Machines, Materials,
Method and Measurement.
 The six M Money may be added if it is relevant. In some cases
Environment is one of the main groups.

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  Important subgroups in each of these main groups are represented on
the middle bones and these branch off further into subsidiary causes
represented as small bones.
 The arrows indicate the direction of the path from the cause to the
effect.
 Cause-and Effect diagram is a tool that provides best results if used by
a group or team. Each individual may have a few ideas for the causes
and his thinking is restricted to those theories.
 More heads are needed to make a comprehensive list of the causes.
Brainstorming technique is therefore very useful in identifying maximum
number of causes.

Procedure
The steps in the procedure to prepare a cause-and-effect diagram are:
1. Agree on the definition of the 'Effect' for which causes are to be found.
Place the effect in the dark box at the right. Draw the spine or the
backbone as a dark line leading to the box for the effect.
2. Determine the main groups or categories of causes. Place them in
boxes and connect them through large bones to the backbone.

3. Brainstorm to find possible causes and subsidiary causes under each of

the main groups. Make sure that the route from the cause to the effect
is correctly depicted. The path must start from a root cause and end in
the effect.

4. After completing all the main groups, brainstorm for more causes that
may have escaped earlier.

5. Once the diagram is complete, discuss relative importance of the

causes. Short list the important root causes.

6. An example of a cause and effect diagram is given

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4.2.3. Histogram

 Histograms or Frequency Distribution Diagrams are bar charts showing

the distribution pattern of observations grouped in convenient class
intervals and arranged in order of magnitude.
 Histograms are useful in studying patterns of distribution and in drawing
conclusions about the process based on the pattern.

 The Histogram is normal if the highest frequency is in the central group

and there is symmetrical tapering on either side of the central group
 Natural or normal distribution would indicate that the process being
studied is under control. Let us see a few instances of Histograms that
are not normal and what conclusions one can draw from them.
 Distribution like two peaks with a little valley between them is known as
Bimodal Distribution. It indicates that the lot being examined is mixed.

 It may be due to pooling of production from two machines or two

shifts, each having a different central value. When one encounters
such a distribution, one should study the two lots separately if the
identity of the two lots can be ascertained.
 For instance if one is examining the dimensions of containers and
encounters bimodal distribution, the containers from the two moulds
can be separated by the mould mark on them.

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 Segregating the data from each lot may then exhibit a normal
distribution.

 In that case one only needs to find why the two lots are different and
eliminate the cause. High Plateau reminds one of Empire State
building.
 One often encounters this type of distribution in incoming materials if
the supplier has sorted out and removed items showing wide variation.
 It can also occur in finished products if there is inspection and sorting at
the end of the production line. Such a distribution indicates that the
actual variation in the process is more than what is seen in the
Histogram.
 The items with wider variation have been removed before sampling.
Such a process generates waste, is uneconomical and needs to be
improved to reduce the variation.
 Cliff pattern may arise due to inspection and sorting out the items only
at one end - those below a specific value, but not at the other end. It
can also occur when the lower end is zero, and the variation on the
higher end goes well beyond twice the value at the peak.
 Alternate peaks and vales is an unnatural pattern that may arise even
if the process is under control if the figures have been rounded off
incorrectly or class intervals have been selected wrongly.

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  Examine the process of rounding of figures in the data and regroup the
data in correct classes and you may get a normal pattern.
 A Histogram with an unnatural pattern may indicate that there is
possibly something unusual with the process, but is not an evidence of
a process being out of control.
 For instance a Histogram depicting the distribution of age of all citizens
will not peak at the centre. It will start with a cliff tapering gradually till
around the life expectancy then dropping a little faster and once
again tapering into along tail.

 The distribution of ages of students in a school shows a high plateau as

there is a specific age at which children are admitted into a school
and they would pass out of the school by a specific age.
 Still one need to consider the reasons for every unnatural pattern and
draw conclusions based on the pattern, one's knowledge about the
process being studied and judgment based on common sense.
Procedure to prepare a Histogram

1. Collect data (preferably 50 or more observations of an item).

2. Arrange all values in an ascending order.
3. Divide the entire range of values into a convenient number of groups
each representing an equal class interval. It is customary to have
number of groups equal to or less than the square root of the number

15
 of observations. However one should not be too rigid about this. The
reason for this cautionary note will be obvious when we see some
examples.
4. Note the number of observations or frequency in each group.
5. Draw X-axis and Y-axis and decide appropriate scales for the groups
on X-axis and the number of observations or the frequency on Y-axis.
6. Draw bars representing the frequency for each of the groups.
7. Provide a suitable title to the Histogram.
8. Study the pattern of distribution and draw conclusion.
4.2.4. Control Charts

Variability is inherent in all manufacturing processes. These variations may be

due to two causes;

I. Random / Chance causes (un-preventable).

ii. Assignable causes (preventable).

A control chart was developed by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart during 1920's while
he was with Bell Telephone Laboratories.

These charts separate out assignable causes.

 Control chart makes possible the diagnosis and correction of many

productions troubles and brings substantial improvements in the quality
of the products and reduction of spoilage and rework.
 It tells us when to leave a process alone as well as when to take action
to correct trouble.

Control Charts for Attributes

 The control charts for attributes are p-chart, np-chart, c-chart
and u-chart. Control charts for defectives are p and np charts.
 P charts are used when the sample size is constant and np charts
are used when the sample size is variable.

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  In the case where the number of defects is the data available for
plotting, c and u charts are used. If the sample size is constant, c
charts are used and u charts are used for variable sample sizes.

4.2.5. Scatter Diagram

 When solving a problem or analyzing a situation one needs to know the
relationship between two variables. A relationship may or may not exist
between two variables.
 If a relationship exists, it may be positive or negative; it may be strong or
weak and may be simple or complex. A tool to study the relationship
between two variables is known as Scatter Diagram.
 It consists of plotting a series of points representing several observations
on a graph in which one variable is on X-axis and the other variable in
on Y-axis.
 If more than one set of values are identical, requiring more points at
the same spot, a small circle is drawn around the original dot to
indicate second point with the same values.
 The way the points lie scattered in the quadrant gives a good
indication of the relationship between the two variables. Let us see
some common patterns seen in Scatter Diagrams and the conclusions
one can draw based on these patterns.
 Diagrams 6 to 11 show some of the more common patterns.
 Diagram 6 shows a random distribution of points all over the quadrant.
Such a distribution or scatter indicates a lack of relationship between
the two variables being studied.
 In Diagram 7, the points appear scattered closely along a line (shown
as a dotted line in the diagram) travelling from the Southwest to the
Northeast direction indicating that if the variable on X-axis increases,
the variable on Y-axis also increases.

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 This is a positive relationship. As the points are very closely scattered
around the straight line, the relationship is said to be strong. Diagram 8,
in which the points are scattered closely around a line sloping in
Northwest to Southeast direction, indicates a strong negative
relationship.
 A negative relationship means that the variable on Y-axis goes down as
the variable on X-axis goes up. Diagrams 9 and 10 shows a scatter of
points loosely spread around lines in directions similar to Diagrams 10
and 8 respectively.
 Hence scatter in Diagram 9 indicates a weak positive relationship and
that in Diagram 10 indicates a weak negative relationship.
 Weak relationship means that the variables are related but there are
possibly other factors besides the variable on X-axis also affecting the
variable on Y-axis.
 If other factors are kept constant in a controlled experiment and the
data is again plotted, it would result in a scatter showing a strong
relationship.
 Diagrams 7 to 10 showed a simple linear relationship between the two
variables over the entire range. Very often the relationship is not that
simple.

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  The variable on Y-axis may increase up to a point as the variable on X-
axis is increased but after that it may stay the same or even decrease.
Diagram 11 shows one such complex scatter.
4.2.6. Graphs

 Graphs of various types are used for pictorial representation of data.

Pictorial representation enables the user or viewer to quickly grasp the
meaning of the data.
 Different graphical representations of data are chosen depending on
the purpose of the analysis and preference of the audience.
 The different types of graphs used are as given below:

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[Link] Type of Graph Purpose

1. Bar Graph To compare sizes of data

2. Line Graph To represent changes of data

3. Gantt Chart To plan and schedule

4. Radar Chart To represent changes in data (before and after)

5. Band Graph Same as above

6. Pie Chart Used to indicate comparative weights

7. ISO Graph To represent data using symbols

4.2.7. Check Sheets

 As measurement and collection of data forms the basis for any
analysis, this activity needs to be planned in such a way that the
information collected is both relevant and comprehensive.
 Check sheets are tools for collecting data. They are designed specific
to the type of data to be collected. Check sheets aid in systematic
collection of data.
 Some examples of check sheets are daily maintenance check sheets,
attendance records, production log books, etc.
4.2.8. Stratification
 Data collected using check sheets needs to be meaningfully classified.
Such classification helps gaining a preliminary understanding of
relevance and dispersion of the data so that further analysis can be
planned to obtain a meaningful output.
 Meaningful classification of data is called stratification. Stratification
may be by group, location, type, origin, symptom, etc.
Some Examples:
Example: Late to work
Reached late to office on following dates (un – stratified data)
- 2/7, 6/7, 9/7, 16/7, 23/7, 30/7
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 Stratified data by day of the week

Mon >5

Tue >0

Wed >0

Thu >0

Fri >1

Sat >0

Step 1. List all conditions

List all conditions that may seem to be cause of the problem.
- Shift - day of week
- Location - time of the day
- Operator - material batch
- Product - inspector
- Machine - production batch
- Inspection equipment
- Raw material source
Step 2. Collect and Stratify Data
 Collect additional data based on classification, if necessary
 Stratify data based on the classification.

Step 3. Interpret the data

 Calculate average of each classification or plot appropriate graph.

 Look for significant differences or abnormalities in data.
 Generate a list of possible causes.

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 5.0. Sampling inspection
 Theory of probability
 Sampling plans
 OC curve
5.1. Theory of probability
 Probability theory began with the study of games of chances
 Throwing of dice, coin, playing cards
 Finds useful application in industry – in sampling inspection, other
statistical techniques
 Basis for SQC
Probability
 Probability is a measure of likely hood of occurrences
 In industry it may be thought of as relative frequency of occurrences in
the long run
Example 1: tossing of a coin
 Total number of outcomes of head or tail = 2
 Chances are one in two ways it will show head
 Chances are one in two ways it will show tail
 An event can happen in ‘m’ ways
 An event fails to happen in ‘n’ ways
 The events are mutually exclusive – both cannot happen at the same
time
 The events are equally likely to occur
 Probability of the event happening is
M
M+N
 It is the ratio of number of ways the event can happen to the total
number of possible ways
 Let us toss a coin 100 times
 Probability of head = 0.5
 Probability of tail = 0.5
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  Probability of both head and tail is 1.00
 Probability is a fraction which varies from 0 to 1
 Probability of zero means impossible
(zero times in 100 tosses)
 Probability of 1 means certainty (100 times out of 100)
Example 2
 A bag contains 100 balls
 70 red and 30 white
 We pick one ball at random
 What is the probability it is a white ball?
 What is the probability it is a red ball?
 Total number of ways one ball can be picked in 100 balls = 100
 Probability that it is a white ball is 30/100= 0.3
 probability that it is a red ball is 70/100= 0.7
 We cannot pick ball of any other color
 Total probability = 0.3 + 0.7 = 1
Addition law of probability
 Mutually exclusive events
 Probability of compound event = sum of probabuilities of its sub events
 P(A+B) = P(A) + P(B)
Multiplication law of probability
 Suppose a large batch of components contains 30% defectives
 We decide to take two samples
 Probability that first is defective is 0.3 p(a)
 Probability that second is defective is 0.3 p(b)
 Probability that both are defective is
P(A) X P(B) = 0.3 X 0.3 = 0.09
 If a compound event is made up of number of separate and
independent events,
 Occurrence of the compound event is result of each of these sub-
events,
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  Probability of compound event = product of probabilities of each of
these sub events.
Conditional probability
 A lot contains 12 items
 4 are defective
 3 items are drawn from it one at a time
 Find the probability none is defective
 Number of non defective articles in the lot is 12 – 4 = 8
 Probability that first item drawn is non defective is 8/12
 Remaining non defecive items in the lot is 7
 Probability that second item drawn is non defective is 7/11
 Probability that third item drawn is non defective is 6/10
 Probability that all three items are non defective is 8/12 x 7/11 x 6/10 =
0.25454
 Events are not independent
 Probability that both of two dependant events will occur
 Is probability of the first
 Multiplied by the probability that if the first has occurred,
 The second will also happen
Factorial notation
 Consider a lot of 50 pieces
 Draw a sample of 5 pieces
 First piece is drawn from any one of 50 pieces
 Second from any one of 49 pieces and so on
 Fifth piece from any one of 46 pieces
 How many different sets of ‘r’ (5) objects can be chosen from ‘n’ (50)
objects
 This is called number of permutations np
r

 50p = 50*49*48*47*46=254,251,200
5

 50p = n!/(n-r)!= 50!/45!=same as above

r

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  Suppose the samples are drawn without regard to the order in which
they are drawn
 This is called combination
 Number of combinations of ‘n’ objects
‘ r ‘ at a time is N cr = n!/r! ( n--r )!
 50 c5 = 50*49*48*47*46/5*4*3*2*1=2,118,768
5.2. Permutation and Combination
 In how many ways 2 people can be included from a team of 5
persons?
 Let the 5 persons be A,B,C,D,E
 AB,AC,AD,AE,
 BA,BC,BD,BE,
 CA,CB,CD,CE,
 DA,DB,DC,DE
 EA,EB,EC,ED.
In permutation order is important
 AB is different from BA
 In combination, AB and BA are same combination, hence treated as 1
 5 p2 = 5!/(5-2)! = 5 x 4 = 20
 5c = 5!/2! (5-2) ! = [Link].1/[Link].1=10
2

 For the same n and r permutation is a bigger number and combination

is a smaller number
 3 digit lock

 A lock has 3 digits each from 0 to 9

 Suppose my code is 436 to open tne lock
 Here order is important
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  634 will not work
 This is permutation
Ice cream example
 In an ice cream parlour, there are 10 different varieties of ice creams
 Pineapple, mango, vanilla, chocolate
 In how many ways can i choose 3 flavors of ice creams---- 10c3
 Here pineapple, mango, orange is one combination
 Orange, mango, pineapple is the same combination
Example
 A random sample of 4 is to be selected from a lot of 10 articles 3 of
which are defective
 What is the probability that the sample will contain only 1 defective?
 Total number of ways to select 4 articles from a lot of 10 articles is 10 c 4
 Lot contains 3 defectives, 7 non defectives
 Probability that sample of 4 contains 1 defective is when 1 defective is
taken from 3 defectives and 3 good pieces from 7 good items
 number of ways is 3 c 1 * 7 c 3
 Therefore the probability of selecting exactly one defective article is
3 c1* 7 c3
P(1) =
10 c4
= 0.5
5.3. Types of distributions
 Normal distribution
 Heights of adult males
 Weight of cement bags
 Dimensions of a part
 When you plot frequency vs parameter the graph conforms
approximately to same shape
 Bell shaped and symmetrical

26
5.3.1. Binomial probability
"bi" means "two" (like a bicycle has two wheels) ...
... So this is about things with two results
 Yes or no
 Good or bad
 Pass or fail
 Suppose a batch contains 30 % defectives
 70 % are good articles
 We draw a sample of one piece
 Probability that it is good = 0.7
 Probability that it is either good or defective = 1
 When we draw 2 samples from this lot, there are now 4 possible
combinations of events
 Probability of one defective followed by one defective = 0.3 x 0.3 =
0.09
 Probability of one defective followed by one good = 0.3 x 0.0.7 = 0.21
 Probability of one good followed by one defective = 0.7 x 0.3 = 0.21
 Probability of one good followed by one good = 0.7 x 0.7 = 0.49
total = 1.0
 Let us say the lot contains p’ defectives and q’ non-defectives or good
pieces,
 Probability of one defective followed by one defective = p 2
 probability of one defective followed by one good = p x q = pq
 Probability of one good followed by one defective = q x p = pq
 Probability of one good followed by one good = q x q= q 2
 This is (p+q) 2
 In general, for n sample size,
 Probability = (p+q) n
 Suppose sample size is 5 and lot is 20% defective
 We need to expand (p+q) 5 = p 5 + 4p 4q +5x4/2x1p 3q 2 + 5x4x3/3x2x1p
2 q 3 + 5x4x3x2/4x3x2x1 pq 4 + q 5
27
  Take the term pq 4
 Probability of one defective and 4 good is 5pq 4 = 5 x 0.2 x (0.8) 4 =
0.4096
 Probability of r occurrences in n trials of an event that has constant
probability of occurrence p’ is given by the formula
 N c r x q’ (n-r) x p’ r = n!/r! (n-r)! X q’ (n-r) x p’ r
 Suppose a lot contains 5% defectives, the probability of 2 defects in a
sample of 5 is given by
 P’ = 0.05, q’ = 0.95, r = 2, the probability will be 5c 2 x q’ (5-2) x p’ 2 =
5!/2! 3! ) x 0.95 2 x 0.05 2 = 0.021434
5.3.2. Poisson’s distribution
 If the probability of failure p’ is very small, failure will occur only after a
large number of trials
 In such cases application of binomial distribution becomes very tedious
 A simple approximation to this is the poisson’s distribution
 This is widely used in quality control
 Tables are available to calculate the probability
5.4. Sampling plans

 Your company received 5000 components from a supplier

 Shall i accept all and send to stores ( 0% inspection)
 Look at all 5000 components ( 100 % inspection)
 Look at some of the components and if they are good accept the lot
( acceptance sampling)

28
5.4.1. Acceptance sampling
 Acceptance sampling is the process of evaluating a portion of the
product/material in a lot for the purpose of accepting/rejecting the lot
as either conforming/nonconforming to a quality specification
Sampling vs. 100% inspection
 In 100% inspection all components received in a lot for inspection are
checked
 In sampling only a specified sample drawn from the lot is inspected
 Sample is defined as number of items drawn from a lot, batch or
population for inspection.
Sampling inspection
 Sampling inspection is defined as a technique to determine the
acceptance or rejection of a lot or population on the basis of number
of defective parts in a random sample drawn from the lot.
 If the number of defective items does not exceed a predefined level,
the lot is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.
Sampling inspection in daily life
 Cooking rice
 Buying mangoes in baskets
 Buying wheat for the month
 Purchasing vegetables
 Selecting clothes
Why sampling is preferred in industry?
 Vs. 100 % inspection
 It is more practical
 Quick
 Economical
 Less fatigue
 Less staff required
 Less damage to products due to less handling
 Cost & time for sampling inspection is quite less
29
  Items for destructive test must be by sampling only
 Less monotony leading to less inspection error
 Most important – it exerts more pressure for quality improvement –
because of rejection of entire lot
Disadvantages of sampling inspection
Risk of making wrong decisions
 Sample drawn may not truly represent the lot quality
 Good lot may be rejected – producer (supplier) has to suffer the risk
 Bad lot may be accepted – consumer (manufacturer) has to suffer the
risk
 Sample provides less information about the product than 100%
inspection

 Extra planning and documentation is necessary

Success of sampling plan depends on following:
 Randomness of samples
 Sample size
 Lot size
 Quality characteristic checked
 Acceptance criteria
Uses of acceptance sampling
 Quality check of incoming materials
 To decide acceptability of the semi finished products for further
processing – from machine to machine, section to section, within the
factory
 To determine quality of outgoing products
 For quality improvement
Lot formation
 A lot is a collection of items from which a sample of 2 or 3 articles are
drawn and inspected to determine acceptability
 Products from different sources (machines/processes, production shifts

30
  Input materials or lots should not be mixed together
 Products should not be accumulated over long periods of time
 Larger the lot lesser the administrative cost
 Do not include any external factors
5.4.2. Sampling methods
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Two-stage sampling
Simple random sample
 Selecting a sample in such a way that each item in a lot has an equal
chance of being selected is called random sampling
 Sample truly represents the population
 Avoid bias
 Parts at the bottom of a tray, middle and on top should be selected
 Item once selected should not be put back into the lot
Stratified sampling
 Stratify – divide and rule
 Draw proportional samples – 1st hour, 2nd hour, etc
 Do not mix up lots from 2 machines
 Draw samples from each of sub lots
 Draw samples without bias
 This method is more effective than simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
 Items in a lot are kept in an orderly manner – trays, piles, stacks.
 Helps in random selection
 Select samples regularly at predetermined intervals
 Operators should not mixup the sequence when presenting for
inspection
 Better reflection of the process
31
Cluster sampling
 Lots submitted for inspection consists of certain clusters of items
 Rejection of lots limited to clusters
 Lots packed in plastic bags or boxes – difficult to repack – randomly
select the packets/boxes and all the items in the selected
cartons/packets are inspected
Two stage sampling
 Lot consists of large number of packages
 Stage 1 : select a desired number of boxes/packets from the lot -
selected primary units
 Stage 2 : required number of items are chosen at random from the
selected primary units
Sampling by attributes and variables
 We classify things using attributes
 Eg: a stop light can be one of the three colors – red, yellow, green
 Weather can be sunny, cloudy, raining, ..
 A component can be conforming or nonconforming
 Counting of defectives
Variables
 We measure things using variables
 The temperature of the oven is 350 deg c
 Tire pressure is 35 psi
 The critical dimension for this part number is 340 mm +/- 2 mm
Variable into attribute
 We can convert variable into attribute
 Consider an important dimension as 340 mm +/- 2 mm
 Piece a 341 mm is conforming
 Piece b 337 mm is nonconforming
 Use go-no go gages

32
Attribute sampling plans
Single sample example
 Your supplier submits a lot of 150 components and you subject it to
acceptance sampling
 The inspection plan is as follows:
 Select 20 components from the lot at random
 If 2 or less is defective, accept the lot
 If 3 or more is defective, reject the lot
Symbols used in sampling
 In symbols this is
 N = 150 = number of items in the lot
 N = 20 = number of items taken as sample ( sample size)
 C= 2 = acceptance number
 R = 3 = rejection number
Parameters of sampling plan
 We need following information to design our own sampling plan
1. Lot size
2. Inspection level
3. Single, double, or multiple sampling
4. Lot acceptance history
5. AQL
 Lot size – number of items received from supplier at one time
 Given by purchasing department
 It is the quantity on the packing slip
 Supplier has to submit in the lot size only unless approved by purchase
otherwise
 Inspection level – to be decided by quality engineer

33
  Select he code letter for your sampling plan
 In the above example, for a lot size of 5000 and inspection level ii,
 The code letter is l
 Inspection level depends on past history of supplies of supplier
 Normal level is ii
 If supplies from supplier is bad, go for tightened inspection
 If supplies are good from supplier go for reduced inspection
 There are three inspection levels – normal, reduced and tightened
inspection or discontinue
5.4.3. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)
 It is the fraction defective that can be tolerated without any serious
effect upon further processing or on customer relations
 The probability of acceptance for an AQL lot should be high
 It is the producer’s safe point
 It represents the maximum proportion of defectives which the
consumer finds definitely acceptable
 AQL can also be defined as the maximum percent defectives that for
the purposes of sampling inspection can be considered satisfactory as
a process average
 AQL = 0 for critical defects
 AQL =2.5 for major defects
 AQL = 4 for minor defects

34
AQL tables for product inspections
 These statistical tables are fundamental tools for preparing a sampling
plan for a random product inspection. They give you the number of
samples to inspect, and the maximum numbers of defects that is
allowed.
Inspection level
 Inspection level tells us how lot size and sample size are related
 Sometimes there are 7 inspection levels
 S1, s2, s3, s4, i, ii, iii
 Normally inspection level ii is used
 Decide on type of sampling plan
 Select single, double or multiple sampling plans
 Inspector prefers single sampling plan
 Supplier likes double sampling plan
Single and double sampling
 Single sample plans – take one sample selected at random and make
an accept/reject decision based on the sample
 Double sample plans- take one sample and make a decision to
accept/reject or take a second sample, use both to make an
accept/reject decision
 The supplier regularly ships parts, which you use in your product.
 Your quality engineer has set the following characteristics for these
parts:
 Inspection level: ii
 AQL: 4.0%
 Plans: double sample
 The supplier ships 150 parts in a lot.
 The lot history says we should use normal inspection for this lot.
 Determine the sample size, the accept number, and the reject
number.

35
Answer:
 N1 = 13, c1 = 0, r1 = 3
 N2 = 13, c2 = 3, r2 = 4
Multiple sampling plans

Sample Sample size Combined samples

Size C R
First N1 N1 C1 R1
Second N2 N1 + n2 C2 R2
Third N3 N1 + n2 + n3 C3 R3

What to do with rejected lot

If the sample fails the test, either
(a) The entire quantity of items is subjected to 100 percent inspection and all
defective items repaired or replaced
or
(b) The entire quantity is returned to the supplier.
AQL tables for product inspections
 The following table (for normal severity) gives you the useful
information. The letter l means 200 samples must be checked.
 If you select the limits as 2.5% for major defects and 4.0% for minor
defects, you reject the batch if you find more than 10 major and/or
more than 14 minor defects.

36
Here are the original AQL charts, straight from the ISO 2859 standard:

5.4.4. OC Curve
 A typical OC curve for a single-sampling plan, plotted in bold, shows
the probability of rejecting a good lot (producer’s risk) and the
probability of accepting a bad lot (consumer’s risk).
Producers’ risk (A)
 Suppose producer’s risk = 0.05
 It means that in the long run about 1 lot in 20 will be rejected provided
that the lots are coming from a process controlled at AQL quality level
 Producer’s risk is normally set at 5%
 Type I error
Consumer’s risk (B)
 Some bad lots are accepted and consumer will suffer
 Say consumer’s risk p (0.1)= 2.5% means consumer does not want a
poor quality containing more than 2.5 defectives and he would atmost
accept 10% of lots containing 2.5% defectives
 Usually 10% is set as consumer’s risk
 Type II error

37
Terminology
 AQL – Acceptable Quality Level – specified by customer
 n - Sample size, N – lot size,
 c - Acceptance Number
 p – Fraction Defective
 ALPHA = Producer’s Risk = Probability of rejecting a good lot
 BETA = consumer’s risk = probability of accepting a bad lot
 LTPD – lot tolerance percent defective
 P(a) – probability of acceptance
 1 - P(a) – probability of rejection
AQL
 Suppose producer’s risk = 0.05
 It means that in the long run about 1 lot in 20 will be rejected provided
that the lots are coming from a process controlled at AQL quality level
 LTPD – lot tolerance percent defective
 Also called RQL- rejectable quality level
 It is a measure of unsatisfactory quality
 It represents the proportion of defectives which the consumer finds
definitely unacceptable
 The probability of acceptance for an rql lot should be low
 It represents consumer’s risk
OC CURVE
 The sampling distribution for the single-sampling plan is the binomial
distribution because each item inspected is either defective (a failure)
or not (a success).
 The probability of accepting the lot equals the probability of taking a
sample of size n from a lot with a proportion defective of p and finding
c or fewer defective items.
 However, if n is greater than 20 and p is less than 0.05, the Poisson
distribution can be used as an approximation to the binomial to take
advantage of tables prepared for the purpose of drawing OC curves.
38
  To draw the OC curve, look up the probability of accepting the lot for
a range of values of p.
See table
For each value of p,
1. Multiply p by the sample size n.
2. Find the value of np in the left column of the table.
3. Move to the right until you find the column for c.
4. Record the value for the probability of acceptance, Pa
 When p = AQL, the producer’s risk, ALPHA , is 1 minus the probability of
acceptance. (1-Pa)
 When p = LTPD, the consumer’s risk, BETA, equals the probability of
acceptance.(Pa)
Constructing an OC curve
 The ABC Company, a high-volume manufacturer of Q systems, just
received a shipment of 1,000 mufflers.
 The sampling plan for inspecting these mufflers calls for a sample size n
= 60 and an acceptance number c = 1. The contract with the muffler
manufacturer calls for an AQL of 1 defective muffler per 100 and an
LTPD of 6 defective mufflers per 100.
 Calculate the OC curve for this plan, and determine the producer’s risk
and the consumer’s risk for the plan.
 Let p = 0.01. Then multiply n by p to get 60(0.01) = 0.60. Locate 0.60 in
Table G. Move to the right until you reach the column for c=1. Read
the probability of acceptance: 0.878.
 Repeat this process for a range of p values. The following table
contains the remaining values for the OC curve.
Construct the table
values for the table with n = 60 and c=1

39
Proportion Np Probability of c or less
defective (p) defects

0.1 (AQL) 0.6 0.878 PRODUCER’S RISK ( 1-0.878 =

ALPHA) = 0.122

0.2 1.2 0.663

0.3 1.8 0.463

0.4 2.4 0.308

0.5 3.0 0.199

0.6 (LTPD) 3.6 0.126 CONSUMER’S RISK 0.126

(BETA) =

0.7 4.2 0.078

0.8 4.8 0.048

0.9 5.4 0.029

1.0 6.0 0.17

Draw the OC curve

Decision
 Note that the plan provides a producer’s risk of 12.2 percent and a
consumer’s risk of 12.6 percent. Both values are higher than the values
usually acceptable for plans of this type ( Say 5-10%)
 Your graph shows the OC curve and the producer’s and consumer’s
risks.
 Quality Manager can adjust the risks by changing the sample size.
Why to draw OC curve
 Example 1 raises the question: How can Quality Engineer change the
sampling plan to reduce the probability of rejecting good lots and
accepting bad lots?

40
  To answer this question, let us see how n and c affect the shape of the
OC curve
 In the example, a better single sampling plan would have a lower
producer’s risk and a lower consumer’s risk.
Let us increase sample size, keeping c constant at 1

n Producer’s Risk percent Consumer’s Risk percent

(p =AQL) (p = LTPD)

60 0.122 12.2 0.126 12.6

80 0.191 19.1 0.048 4.8

100 0.264 26.4 0.017 1.7

120 0.332 33.2 0.006 0.6

What does this mean?

 Increasing n while keeping c constant,
 Increases producer’s risk
 Reduces consumer’s risk

41
 6.0. Statistical Process Control

Work as a process

Population and sample:

• The entire set of items is called the Population.

• The small number of items taken from the population to make a
judgment of the population is called a Sample.
• The numbers of samples taken to make this judgment is called Sample
size.

Representative samples:

• For conclusions to be valid, samples must be representative.

– Data should fairly represent the population or process

42
 – No systematic differences should exist between the data you
collect and the data you don’t collect.
6.1. Sampling Strategy
Population approach
 Make probability statements about the population from the sample
 “I have 95% confidence that the mean of the population is between
1.5 and 2.5 seconds”
 Use sample size formula
Process approach
 Assess the stability of the population over time
 “Are shifts, trends, or cycles occurring?”
 “Do I take a special or common cause variation approach to process
improvement?”
 Use rational sub grouping

43
44
Sample size rules of thumb:

This man wants to reach his work place by 6.55 a.m. But he can not do so,
exactly at 6.55 a.m. daily. Sometimes he reaches earlier (but almost never
before 6.50 a.m.). Sometimes he reaches later (but almost never after 7.00
a.m.).

6.55 a.m.  5 minutes.

WHY?

Of certain factors which affect the time he takes he cannot control Vary
randomly.

E.g. the traffic you encounter under normal course of travel

The variation that occurs due to these kinds of factors is called inherent
variation or common cause variation or white noise.

e.g... M/c vibration, Tool wears etc.

6.1.1 Measure of central tendency

There are three ways in which central tendency of numbers can be

measured.
These are the 3 M’s
 Mean
 Median
 Mode
45
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the sum of a set of observations, positive,
negative or zero, divided by the number of observations.
Median
Median is that variable which divides the group of data into two equal
parts, one part comprising all the values greater and the other, all the values
less than the median.
Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
If ‘n’ is odd median is the middle value of the observations
If ‘n’ is even, median is given by the arithmetic mean of the two middle terms
Mode
Mode is the value of a distribution for which the frequency is maximum. In
other words, mode is the value of a variable, which occurs with the highest
frequency.
So the mode of the list (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, and 4) is 3. The mode is not necessarily
well defined. The list (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, and 5) has the two modes 2 and 3.
Variation
• No two things in nature are alike.
• This is also true for manufactured products.
• This dissimilarity between two products for the same characteristic
is called variation.
• The variation may be or can be made to be so small so as to make
the product SEEM similar.
• When we say that 2 things are similar we actually mean that it is not
possible to measure the variation present within the accuracy of the
existing measuring equipment.
• Variation between 2 products is compared for SIMILAR features or
characteristics.

46
6.1.2 Measure of Dispersion
 The extent of the spread of the values from the mean value is called
Dispersion.
 Dispersion or spread is the degree of the scatter or variation of the
variables about a central value.
 The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average
value is called the variation or dispersion of the data.
The measures of Dispersions are
 Range (R)
 Standard Deviation (s)
 Variance (s2)
 Co-efficient of Variation (CV)
Standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of dispersion.

Measures of Dispersion

Standard Deviation:

The square root of the sample variance is the sample standard deviation.

s  s2 
 x  x  2

n 1

“Sample standard deviation”

“Normal” bell shaped curve:

47
 • If the frequency distribution of a set of values is such that :

– 68.26% of the values line within ±1s from the mean

AND
– 95.46% of the values line within ±2s from the mean
AND
– 99.73% of the values line within ±3s from the mean
Then the distribution is normal.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION IS CHARACTERISED BY A BELL SHAPED CURVE.

6.2. Control charts Types:

Attributes control charts:
 Attribute data are counted and cannot have fractions or
decimals. Attribute data arise when you are determining only the
presence or absence of something: success or failure, accept or
reject, correct or not correct.
 For example, a report can have four errors or five errors, but it
cannot have four and a half errors.
 Applied to data following discrete distribution
Commonly Used Control Charts:

48
 • Variables data
– x-bar and R-charts
– x-bar and s-charts
– Charts for individuals (x-charts)
• Attribute data
– For “defectives” (p-chart, np-chart)
For “defects” (c-chart, u-chart)
Control Chart Construction;
• Select the process to be charted;
• Determine sampling method and plan;
– How large a sample needs to be selected? Balance the time
and cost to collect a sample with the amount of information you
will gather.
– As much as possible, obtain the samples under the same
technical conditions: the same machine, operator, lot, and so
on.
– Frequency of sampling will depend on whether you are able to
discern patterns in the data. Consider hourly, daily, shifts,
monthly, annually, lots, and so on. Once the process is “in
control”, you might consider reducing the frequency with which
you sample.
– Generally, collect 20-25 groups of samples before calculating
the statistics and control limits.
Consider using historical data to establish a performance baseline
• Initiate data collection:
– Run the process untouched, and gather sampled data.
– Record data on an appropriate Control Chart sheet or other
graph paper. Include any unusual events that occur.
• Calculate the appropriate statistics and control limits:
– Use the appropriate formulas.
49
 • Construct the control chart(s) and plot the data.
Calculation of X Bar Chart Control Limits

n
R
i
UCL  x  A2R R  1n
i
x
n
 xi
LCL  x  A2R x  in1
x
Calculation of R Chart Control Limits

UCLR  D4R

LCLR  D3R
Statistical Process Control - Identify and Reduce Process Variability

6.2.1. X-Bar/ Range Chart:

Shows sample means over time
Monitors process average
Example: Weigh samples of coffee & compute means of samples; Plot
• The X-bar chart monitors the process location over time, based on the
average of a series of observations, called a subgroup.
• X-bar / Range charts are used when you can rationally collect
measurements in groups (subgroups) of between two and ten
observations.
• Each subgroup represents a "snapshot" of the process at a given point
in time. The charts' x-axes are time based, so that the charts show a
history of the process.
• For this reason, data should be time-ordered; that is, entered in the
sequence from which it was generated.
• If this is not done, trends or shifts in the process may not be detected,
but instead attributed to random (common cause) variation.

50
R Chart:

• Shows sample ranges over time

• Difference between smallest & largest values in inspection sample

• Monitors variability in process

• Example: Weigh samples of coffee & compute ranges of samples

X-Bar and R Control Chart Construction:

Steps 1 - Determine the data to be collected. Decide what questions about

the process you plan to answer.

Step 2 - Collect and enter the data by subgroup. Collect 20 to 25 samples

of n=4 or n=5 from a stable process

A subgroup is made up of variables data that represent a characteristic of

a product produced by a process. The sample size relates to how large the
subgroups are. Enter the individual subgroup measurements in time sequence
in the portion of the data collection section of the Control Chart

X-Bar and R Control Chart Construction

STEP 3 - Calculate and enter the average for each subgroup. Use the formula
below to calculate the average (mean) for each subgroup and enter it on
the line

Calculate the grand mean of the subgroup’s average. The grand mean of
the subgroup’s average (X-Bar) becomes the centerline for the upper plot.

51
STEP 4 - Calculate and enter the range for subgroup.

Calculate R Bar to get the centre line of R chart

STEP 5 - Calculate the control limits for both X Bar and R chart

X Bar Chart Control Limits:

R Chart Control Limits :

Factors for Computing Control Chart Limits

Interpretation

Always look at the Range chart first. The control limits on the X-bar chart are
derived from the average range, so if the Range chart is out of control, then
the control limits on the X-bar chart are meaningless.

 Look for out of control points. If there are any, then the special
causes must be immediately eliminated.
 There should be more than five distinct values plotted, and no one
value should appear more than 25% of the time.
 If the range values are repeating too often, then you have
inadequate resolution of your measurement system

52
  In this case, you'll have to look at how you measure the variable,
and try to measure it more precisely.
 Once the effect of the out of control points from the Range chart is
removed, look at the X-bar Chart.
 Mean and Range Charts Complement Each Other
Control Chart Interpretation:

• A process can be characterized by:

 Examining its behavior during a sufficiently brief interlude of time
 Examining its behavior across a greater expanse of time.
 Stable process: one which performs with a high degree of
consistency at an essentially constant level for an extended
period of time
 “In-control”
 A process that is not stable is referred to as being in an out-of-
control state
Typical Out-of-Control Patterns
• Point outside control limits
• Sudden shift in process average
• Cycles
• Trends
• Hugging the center line
• Hugging the control limits
• Instability
Rule 1 : Points beyond control

• Presence of special cause.

• Identify root cause and take action.

53
 X bar or R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Rule 2 : Run of 7 Points on one side of central line

• Presence of special cause.

• Process has shifted

X ba r or R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Rule 3 : Seven or more consecutive Points Increasing

• Presence of special cause.

• Process is deteriorating.
X bar or R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

54
Rule 4 : Periodicity

X b ar o r R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

• Presence of special cause.

• Periodic Interference in the process.

Rule 5 : Fourteen consecutive points alternating up & down

• Presence of special cause.

• Identify root cause and take action.

X b ar o r R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Rule 6 :
Run of two points above 2 Sigma line

55
6.3. Process Capability

 Simply setting up control charts to monitor whether a process is in

control does not guarantee process capability.
 To produce an acceptable product, the process must be capable and
in control before production begins.

Key Words:

Process

A process is the work performed with a set of inputs – raw materials,

machines, and employees that adds value and provides a product or service
for the customer (internal or external).

Capability

Process capability is the ability of a process to produce products or

services in a state of statistical control (predictable) for a period of time under
a given set of conditions. Outside influences (special causes of variation)
must be eliminated from the process in order to obtain this level of statistical
control.

Process Capability Study:

Comparison of process output(s) to product requirements

Specification Limits and Capable Processes

Specification Limits - often called “voice of the customer” and used to

determine if the product meets a customer requirement. Usually stated as a
LSL and USL but sometimes you may only have one of these.

A capable process is a stable process that demonstrates the ability to

meet customer requirements. (A purist definition – The simple fact is that no
process is stable forever and ever and we still need to address the capability
of our processes in the presence of instability)

When we talk capability indices, we're now comparing the process

variation (and sometimes average) to the specification limits.

Before when we were talking stability, we were comparing the process

variation to the control limits.

56
Process Capability Indices:

Process capability can be expressed as percentage nonconforming or in

terms of the natural spread related to the specification spread.

Process Capability Study:

A process capability study is a systematic procedure for determining the

capability of a process. The process capability study may include studies to
improve the process and in turn the capability of the process.

Process capability studies are usually performed as part of a process

certification effort or a process optimization effort.

Summary of Indices

 Cp is the best indicator of potential process capability because it

assumes a stable and on-target process.
 Cpk is an indicator of potential process capability if the process is
stable. It does take into consideration if the process is off-target.
 Pp is an indicator of actual process performance if the process is on-
target. It does take into consideration the long-term variability.
 Ppk is the best indicator of actual process performance because it
considers the process average and long-term variability.

Advantages of Process Capability Study:

 Predicting how well the process will hold the tolerance.

 Assisting product designers in modifying or selecting processes.
 Assisting in establishing an interval between sampling for process
monitoring.
 Specifying performance requirements for new equipment.
 Selecting between vendors.
 Reducing the variability in manufacturing processes.
 Planning the sequence of production processes when there is an
effect of processes on tolerance.

When to use process capability:

Process capability should be used when

 Measuring a process or characteristic where

variable data is collected and engineering
specification exits

57
  Performing tolerance analysis
 Recalculating control limits to improve the
confidence of the capability estimate

Process Capability Study:

 After a process capability study has been performed, a process will be

classified as either capable or incapable.
 When the process is not capable of producing virtually all conforming
product, the process is said to be incapable and acceptance
sampling procedures (or 100% inspection) must re main part of the
process.

 Processes may also start out as capable but changes over time to
have more variability. In addition, the process mean may also shift
placing the process too close to one of the specification limits. Both
increases in process variability and shifting of the mean may result in
once capable processes becoming incapable.

58
Assumptions for calculating Cp and Cpk :

• The process must be in “statistical control”

• Process mean is stable and predictable

• Process variation is stable and predictable

• Specification limits are independent of the process

• Targets being used are goals for the process

[Link] Capability Study Steps

(1) Select Critical Parameters

• Critical parameters need to be selected before the study begins.

Critical parameters may be established from drawings, contracts,
inspection instructions, work instructions, etc.

• Critical parameters are usually correlated to product fit and/or

function.

(2) Collect Data

• A data collection system needs to be established to assure that the

appropriate data is collected. It is preferable to collect at least 60 data
values for each critical parameter.

• If this is not possible, corrections can be made to adjust for the error
that is introduced when less than 60 data values are collected

(3) Establish Control over the Process

• A distinction between product and process should be made at this

point. The product is the end result from the process.

59
 • One may control the process by measuring and controlling
parameters of the product directly or measuring and controlling the
inputs to the process.

• On the other hand, process capability indices are always performed

using the critical parameters of the product.

• Calculation of predictable process capability indices is dependent on

the statistical control of the process. If the process is not in statistical
control, then the results of the study are subject to fluctuate
unpredictably.

• The statistical control of the process can be studied using control

charts (usually Bar-R charts).

(4)Analyze Process Data

• To calculate the process capability indices, estimates of the process

average and dispersion (standard deviation) must be obtained from
the process data.

• In addition, the formulas for process capability indices assume that the
process data came from a normal statistical distribution.

• It is important that one prove that the data is normally distributed prior
to reporting the process capability indices because errors in
misjudgement can lead to the desirable effects

(5) Analyze Sources of Variation

• Study of the component sources of variation and their magnitudes

may range from simple statistical tests to complex experimental designs
carried out over a long period of time.

• If possible, tests should be kept simple. Analyzing sources of variation

involves determining what process factors affect the natural process
spread (process variation) and the process centring. With this
knowledge, it may be possible to improve the process’ capability.

(6) Establish Process Monitoring System

• Once the process capability indices indicate a capable process, a

routine process control technique should be employed to assure that
the process remains stable.

60
 • This may be done by a variety of methods such as establishing a
statistical process (SPC) program.

• The process capability indices should also be periodically recalculated

to assure the process mean and spread has not significantly changed.

Capability indexes:

 Capability indexes are values that measure the capability of a process

 Capability indexes are used to predict the performance of a process
by comparing the width of process variation to the with of the
specified tolerance
 Process capability uses two indexes, Cp and Cpk, to compare process
variation and engineering requirements

6.3.2. Process Capability Indices:

Cp:

• Called Process potential capability Index

• Process capability uses the process sigma value

Determined from the Moving Range, Range or Sigma Control

charts

• Width of the engineering tolerance divided by the

capability, or spread, in the output of the process

• The Cp ratio does not take into account the

relationship between the process average and
the target specification

61
Cpk :

• Called Process performance Capability index

• Ratio of the distance between the process average

and the closest specification limit, to the three
standard deviations of the process variation

• Takes into account the location of the data mean

within the tolerance

The Major Capability / Performance Indices

Cp and C pk address short-term capability
Cpk predicts capability:
 Based on short term within subgroup variation
 Does not include the effect of process variability between
subgroups
Cpk should be used when:
− Developing new parts
− Revising specifications on a part
− Materials, processes, manufacturing location, or equipment
have significantly changed
− Material suppliers have changed (include certificate of analysis)
Difference between Cp & Cpk:
 Cp – determines capability of producing to specification
 Cpk – same as Cp, but also measures how centered the process is

62
Visualizing Process Capability

What if Process is Off-Target?

63
Difference between Cp & Cpk

6.4. Control Plans

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM:

What is it?

• A visual diagram of the entire process from receiving through shipping,

including outside processes and services

Purpose:

To help people “see” the real process. Process maps can be used to
understand the following characteristics of a process:

• Set-by-step process linkage

• Offline activities (measurement, inspection, handling)

• Rework, scrap

When to Use It

• To understand how a process is done

• Prior to completing the PFMEA

64
 LEO PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM F/QA/05/0
Part No. : 484 -0100264 Customer Name : NCR Doc. No. : PFD/NCR/0264
Shaft Pressure
Part Name : : Page : 1 of 1 Rev. No. / Date : O / 10.08.09
Paddle

Incoming CNC Sliding Deburring & Cleaning

Final Isnpection
Inspection Machining
10 15 20
05

**RM receiving Patrol Insp.

Insp. report report Final Inspection
register
Pre delivery
Pre shipment Oiling, Packing & Layout
Despatch Inspection
audit Preservation Inspection

70 60 50 40 30

Pre shipment Layout Inspection Self Inspection

audit report Report Report

Not ok , Rejected
** Inspection as per 100%
Inspection as If Rejected If rework
Opertion layout Re-inspection
per RIQP possible Rework

Not ok , Rejected
Return to Note : Not ok Ok
supplier Tags to be provided
for OK, Rework, Inspection Scrap Next
& Rejection operation

PREPARED BY & DATE APPROVED BY &

- MOVEMENT - PATROL INSPECTION - STORAGE
DATE
- SUPPLIER END OPERATION - PROCESS - INSPECTION T T Arul V Raja

Reviewers Checklist

 Process Flow must identify each step in the process

 Should include abnormal handling processes

 Scrap

 Rework

 Process Flow must include all phases of the process

 Receiving of raw material

 Part manufacturing

 Offline inspections and checks

 Assembly

 Shipping

65
 7.0 Machining processes
Machining is a term used to describe a variety of material
removal processes in which a cutting tool removes unwanted material
from a work piece to produce the desired shape.

7.1.1. Drilling
 Drilling is a process of making holes on work pieces. The tool used in
drilling is known as drill.
 For drilling, the drill is rotated with a downward pressure causing the
tool to penetrate into the material.
 Before drilling the centre of the hole is located on the work piece by
drawing two lines at right angles to each other and then a centre
punch is used to produce an impression at the centre.
 The drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required
hole.
 Drilling does not produce an accurate hole in a work piece and the
hole location is not perfect.
 The internal surface becomes rough and the hole is always slightly
oversize than the drill used due to the vibration of the spindle and the
drill.

Reaming
 Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has
been previously drilled.
 The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which has multiple
cutting edges.

66
  In order to finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is
drilled slightly undersize.
 The speed of the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic
feed may be employed.
 Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the path which has
been previously drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.

Boring
 Boring is a process of enlarging the hole by means of an adjustable
cutting tool with only one cutting edge.
 This is necessary where suitable sized drill is not available or where hole
diameter is so large.
 To machine the internal surface of a hole already produced in casting.
 To correct out of roundness of the hole.
 The cutter is then held in a boring bar which has a taper shank to fit into
the spindle socket.
 For perfect finishing a hole, the job is drilled slightly undersize.
 It is a slow process than reaming and requires several passes.

67
Counter boring
 Counter boring is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole
cylindrically.
 The tool used for counter boring is called a counter bore.
 The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole.
 This is to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
 The counter bores are made with straight or tapered shank to fit in the
drill spindle, the cutting edges may have straight or spiral teeth.
 The cutting speed for counter boring is 25 % less than that of drilling
operation.

Countersinking
 Countersinking is the operation of making a cone-shaped enlargement
of the end of a hole to provide a recess for a flat head screw or
countersunk rivet fitted into the hole.
 The tool used for countersinking is called a countersink.
 The cutting speed in countersinking is 25 % less than that of drilling

68
Tapping
 Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a
cutting tool called a tap.
 A tap maybe considered as a bolt with accurate threads cut on it.
 The threads act as cutting edges which are hardened and ground.
 When the tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts
internal threads which will fit into external threads of the same size.

7.1.2. Drilling Machines

Types of drilling machines

 Portable drilling machine
 Sensitive bench drilling machine
 Pillar drilling machine
69
  Column drilling machine and Radial arm drilling machine. (Radial
Drilling Machine)
 Gang drilling machine
 Multi spindle drilling machine
Drilling machines (portable type)
 It used for certain jobs which cannot be handled on stationary drilling
machines.
 There are two types of portable drilling machines, power operated and
hand operated.
Power operated drilling machines
Electric hand drill (light duty)
 The electric hand drill has a small electrical motor for driving the drill.
On the end of the spindle, a drill chuck is mounted.
 It is used for light duty with a single speed.

Electric hand drill (heavy duty)

 In this the drill speed can be varied through a system of gears.
 This is used for drilling larger diameter holes

70
Pneumatic hand drilling machines
 This type of drill is operated by compressed air.
 An air driven motor is housed in the casing, and a handle is fitted
along with an air pipe to operate the drill conveniently.
 This drill is used where electrically operated drills are prohibited i.e.
explosives factories, petroleum refineries etc.
Hand operated drilling machines
 They are used in structural fabrication, sheet metal and carpentry.
 The ratchet drilling machine is commonly used in structural fabrication.
 The bevel gear type drilling machine is used for drilling small diameter
holes up to 6 mm.

Sensitive bench drilling machine

 This is used for light duty work.
 It is used for drilling holes up to 12.5 mm diameter.
 The drills are fitted in the chuck or directly in the tapered hole of the
machine spindle.
 For normal drilling, the work- surface is kept horizontal.
 If the holes are to be drilled at an angle, the table can be tilted.

71
  Different spindle speeds are achieved by changing the belt position in
the stepped pulley.

Pillar drilling machine

 This is an enlarged version of the sensitive bench drilling machine.
 These drilling machines are mounted on the floor and driven by more
powerful electric motors.
 They are used for heavy duty work.

72
Radial drilling machines
 The radial drilling machine has a radial arm on which the spindle head
is mounted
 The spindle head can be moved along the radial arm and can be
locked in any position.
 The arm is supported by a pillar (column).
 It can be rotated about with the pillar as centre. Therefore, the drill
spindle can cover the entire working surface of the table.
 The arm can be lifted or lowered.
 The motor mounted on the spindle head rotates the spindle.
 The variable-speed gearbox provides a large range of r.p.m.
 The spindle can be rotated in both clockwise and anticlockwise
directions.
 Angular holes can be drilled on machines having tilting tables. A
coolant tank is mounted on the base.

Gang drilling machine

 It consists of a large base supporting a long table.
 The top of the table is designed in such a way that several units may be
mounted on it.
 Each spindle is driven by its individual directly connected motor.

73
  The table has a groove around the outside for the return of the cutting
lubricant, and may have T-slots on its surface for easy in clamping the
work to the table.

Multiple spindle head drilling machine

 It may have any number of spindles - from 4 to 48 or more, all driven
from the one-spindle drive gear in one head.
 The multiple spindle head drilling machine is specially designed for
mass production

 Operations such as drilling, reaming or tapping many holes at one time

in a specific unit of work such as an automobile engine block.
 There may be two or more drill heads on one machine, each with
many spindles.
 This is necessary when holes are drilled from more than one direction

74
7.1.3. Milling

 Milling is a machining process, where the metal is removed from the

work by a rotating multipoint cutter.
 While the milling cutter rotates at a high speed, and because of the
multiple points, it removes metal at fast rate, in comparison with other
machine tools.

Types of Milling
Peripheral Milling

 The milled surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery of

the cutter body.
 The axis of cutter rotation is generally in a plane parallel to the work
piece surface to be machined.

75
Face Milling

 The cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation

perpendicular to the work piece surface.
 The milled surface results from the action of cutting edges located on
the periphery and face of the cutter.
Two operating procedures
Up milling/conventional
Move the work piece against the direction of the cutter rotation.

Advantages
 Up-cut milling is feasible on any milling machine. The hard skin of a
casting is machined off from underneath.
 The cutter first penetrates the less hard layer within.
 Chances of cutter breakage are less.

76
Disadvantages
 The work piece tends to get lifted.
 It is at a maximum force while the metal chip is being milled off.
Down milling/climb

 The feed moves in the same direction as the rotation of the cutter.
 In climb-milling the cutter is pulling the work piece, causes the
'backlash'. If down milling is tried on a machine, the work piece will
move along in a series of jerks resulting in very poor finish and even
breakage of the cutter.

End Milling

 Cutting is done on the end of the cutter as well as on the periphery.

 This operation is used for facing small surfaces, milling slots or grooves,
producing internal recesses and for truing the edges of a work piece

77
Side Milling
 It is the process of machining a vertical flat surface perpendicular to
the axis of the milling machine arbor.

 This operation is performed by the combined action of the peripheral

and side teeth on a side and facing cutter.

Straddle Milling
 Milling two parallel surfaces using two cutters spaced apart on an
arbor

Gang Milling
Milling is done in different types of milling machines by a combination or
gang of two or more cutters mounted on one arbor.

78
7.2. Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
 It is machining process in which material is removed/eroded by
repetitive electrical spark between work piece and electrode
 The electrode is made of high conductivity copper of desired
geometry to be produced on the work piece

 The work piece is connected to positive terminal of DC electric source

so that it becomes Anode and the tool is connected to negative
terminal of DC electric source so that it becomes Cathode
 The work piece is immersed in dielectric fluid such as kerosene or light
lubricating oil which is non conductor of electricity
 A gap known as “Spark gap” in the range of 5 to 50 microns
maintained between work piece and tool
79
  DC electric source which will produce electric spark between work
piece and tool produces high temp(10000˚C)causes metal erosion in
the work piece
 Continuous flow of dielectric fluid at the spark gap flushes away the
eroded material from work piece
Advantages
 The process can be applied to all conducting metals and alloys
 Any complicated shape that made on electrode can be reproduced
on work piece
 It can be employed on extremely hardened work piece
 No mechanical stress is present on the work piece
 hard and corrosion resistant surfaces essentially needed for die making
can be developed
Disadvantages
 Machining time is too long
 Profile machining of complex contours is not possible at required
tolerances
 Sparking heats the job and causes change in surface & metallurgical
properties
 Excessive tool wear
 More power consumption

80
7.3. Wire cut EDM

 It uses thin moving wire as electrode and produces any type of

complex slots in the work piece
 It is similar to band sawing where the saw teeth do the cutting.
 In wire cut EDM a spark occurs between wire electrode and work
piece and metal removal is effected
 The wire is continuous in this process and the wire may not be reused
 The most commonly used wire is brass and its diameter in the range of
0.125 mm

81
 8.0. Engineering Materials

 Manufacturing Process depends on properties of raw material

 Correct material, machining, fabrication, heat treatment, plays
an important role in achieving desired form, fit form and function.
 Premature wear, breakage results in breakdown and production
interruption.

82
8.1. Classes of engineering materials
Engineering materials can be classified in the three broad groups
according to their mode of occurrence.
 Metals and alloys
 Ceramics and
 Organic Polymers
Some important grouping of Common examples of engineering use
materials group of materials
1. Metals and alloys Steels, aluminium, copper, brass, bronze, super
alloys, etc.
2. Ceramics MgO, Cds, ZnO, SiC, silica, concrete,etc
3. Organic Polymers Plastics, Fibers, Natural and synthetic rubbers,
leather etc.

Metals
 A metal is an elemental substance.
 Metals are heavier and stronger than non metals.
 They also conduct heat and electricity better than non-
metals.

Alloy
Two or more pure metals are melted together to form a new metal,
having properties different from that two metals.

83
Non Metallic Materials
 Non metallic solid materials which find application in Industry are
Rubber, Ceramic, Plastics etc.,
 They may be natural or synthetic, to their limited use.
Rubber
 Rubber may be artificially be hardened by vulcanizing it with
sulphur.
 It is widely used for tyres, washers, gaskets, bellows, elastic
suspensions etc.,

Plastics:
 Plastics are organic substances with a complex arrangement of
heavy molecules, chemically known as POLYMERS.
 They are available in powder form (for moulding) and in the form
of sheets or tubes.

84
  The most widely used plastics are phenol formal dehyde (Bakelite),
Methylmethacrylate (Perspex), Poly ethylene (Polythene or
Alkathene) and Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC).
 These find extensive use for making transparent sheets, electrical
insulation, tubes, seals, bearings etc.,
Ceramics

 Ceramics are materials consisting of phases.

 A phase is a physically separable and chemically homogeneous
constituent of a material.
 All metallic compounds, rocks, minerals, glass, glass-fiber,
abrasive and all fired clay are ceramics.

85
Ferrous metals

Ferrous metals Contains major portion of iron

Examples: Pig Iron, Wrought iron, Cast Iron, Steels
Non-Ferrous Metals
Nonferrous metal is one which does not contain Iron.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Nickel, Magnesium, Chromium, Lead, Tin.

8.1.1. Steels
Steels Containing 0.2% C to 1.5%C are called as carbon steel.
General classes of steel
• Low carbon (mild steels) <0.3% C - high ductility, low strength, for
general use, sheets, plate.
• Medium carbon steel 0.3-0.6% C – higher strength, higher hardness, less
ductility, gears, axles, railroad, etc.

86
 • High carbon steels >0.6% C – hard, strong, brittle, tool steel, springs,
cutting tools
Low carbon steels:
 Low carbon steels contain carbon up to 0.3 %
 Low carbon steels are cheap and possess good formability and
excellent weld ability.
 These steels are extensively used as sheet and strip steel, structural
steel, cold heading steel, free cutting steel and case hardening
steels
Medium carbon steels:
Steels with carbon varying from 0.3 % to 0.6 % are referred to as
medium carbon steels.
Alloy steels:
Alloy steels are superior to plain carbon steels in several respects.
Depending on the nature and amount of alloying element(s), alloy steels, in
general, possess
 better strength, hardness and ductility
 higher fatigue and impact strengths
 better resistance to grain growth and softening during
tempering
 excellent high and low temperature properties
 enhanced corrosion resistance and wear resistance
 Better electrical and magnetic properties.
Special purpose steel
 Stainless steel
 Spring steel
Tool Steel
High speed steel:
 Well suited for manufacturing cutting tools which can be
operated at high speeds
 Carbon varies from 0.60% to 1.5%
87
  Application includes HSS cutting tools, heavy cut tools, milling
cutters, reamers, and lathe centre, wear plates etc.
Special purpose steels
Stainless steel
 It is a high alloy steel which posses’ excellent corrosion and
oxidation resistance.
 It is used in nuclear plants, power generating units, paper
manufacturing plants, food processing units.
Spring steels
 It is steel with high elastic limit, toughness, and fatigue strength,
suitable for springs.
 High quality springs from chromium-vanadium steel.
 Typical steel contains 0.5% C, 10% Cr, 0.2% V, 0.4% Si, and 0.7%
Mn.
 Applications are Automobile and aircraft engine valve springs,
high quality laminated and coil springs for motor cars.

Uses of Steel
 Low carbon steel is used for manufacture of sheets/wires/pipes
etc.
 Medium carbon steel is used for manufacturing of
rails/boilers/plates/axles/structures
 High carbon steel is used for mfr of surgical instruments/razor
blades/cutlery/springs etc

88
Alloy steel
Alloying element
• Other elements (besides carbon) can be added to iron to improve
mechanical property, manufacturing, or environmental property.
• Example: sulfur, phosphorous, or lead can be added to improve
machineability.
• Generally want to use for screw machine parts or parts with high
production rates!
• Examples: 11xx, 12xx and 12Lxx
• Again, elements added to steel can dissolve in iron
– Increase strength, hardenability, toughness, creep, high temp
resistance.
Classification Of Alloy Steel
• Alloy steels grouped into low, med and high-alloy steels.
– High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.
– Most alloy steels you’ll use fall under the category of low alloy.
• What classifies a steel as an alloy steel
> 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu
• Most common alloy elements:
– Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt,
boron, and copper.
– Low alloy: Added in small percents (<5%)
– increase strength and hardenability
– High alloy: Added in large percents (>20%)
– i.e. > 10.5% Cr = stainless steel where Cr improves corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temps

89
Chemical composition

Specification of steels
 Steels are specified on the basis of certain criteria like, the method of
manufacturing, chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical
properties etc.
 Every country has a different way of specifications. Majorities are
based on chemical composition.
8.1.2. Indian standard designation system (ISI 1961)
 Indian standard code for designation of steel was adopted by ISI in
1961 and it was revises in to two parts in 1974.
 Part 1 covers the designation of steel based on Letter symbols and part
2 covers the designation of steel based on Numerals.
 Code designation on the basis of Mechanical properties is based on
tensile strength or yield strength.

90
 Symbol Fe is used to designate minimum tensile strength. Symbol FeE is
used to designate minimum yield strength in N/mm2,
 Symbol St is used when tensile strength is in Kg/ mm2 and StE is used for
Yield strength in Kg/mm2.
 It is followed by special characteristics covering method of de-
oxidation, steel quality, degree of purity, surface condition, weld ability
and heat treatment.
 Designation of steel on the basis of chemical composition consists of a
numerical figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of
carbon content.
 Letter C is used for plain carbon steels and Letter T are used for tool
steel and these are followed by a figure indicating ten times the
average percentage of manganese.
 Symbols S, Se, Te, Pb, are P are used to indicate free cutting steels
followed by a figure indicating 100 times the percent content of the
respective element.
 Alloy steel are designated in the symbolic form on the basis of their
alloy content by first specifying the average content of carbon in 100ths
of a percent followed by the chemical symbols of the significant
element in the descending order of percentage content.
 The nominal or average percent of each alloying element is indicated
by an index No just after its chemical symbol. If it is tool steel, letter T
should be prefixed before carbon content.
 If the average alloy content is up to 1%, the index No is expressed up to
two decimal places underlined by a bar except for B, N. etc. where
they will be indicated by an alloy symbol only.
 For e.g. chromium content is between 0.5% and 0.8%, it is represented
as Cr 65.
 If alloy content is between 1 % and 10% the index no is rounded to the
nearest whole no. If it is necessary, the alloy contents may be rounded
of one place of decimal, the decimal digit being underlined by a bar
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 e.g. If the chromium content varies between 1 .20% and 1.60%, it may
be represented either as Cr 1 or Cr 1 4.
 If the alloy content is more than 10%, the index no is rounded to the
nearest whole no e.g. if chromium content is between 12% and 18%, it
is represented as Cr 15.
 If two or more significant alloying elements have the same alloy index,
their chemical symbols may be grouped together followed by their
alloy index, e.g. if a steel contains nickel between 0.9% and 1.3% and
chromium between 1.2% and 1.6% both may be represented as NiCr 1.
 Some typical e.g. are shown below.
1. St 42 Steel with minimum T.S of 42 Kg/mm2
2. Fe E 270 Steel with minimum Y S of 270 N/mm2
3. C 20 Steel with average carbon of 0.2%.
4. 25 C5 Steel with average carbon of 0.25% and
Mangesese of 0.5%
5. 80 T 11 Tool steel with average carbon of 0.8%
and 1.1% mangesese.
7. 15 Ni 1 3 Cr 1 Mo 12 Steel with carbon 1.5%, Nickel 1.3%,
Cr 1%, Mo 0.12%.
8. 35 Mn 1 S 18 Steel with carbon 0.35%, Mn 1%, sulphur
0.18%.
9. T 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 Tool steel with carbon 0.75%, Tungsten
18%, Chromium 4%, Vanadium 1%.
10. T 105 Cr 1 Mn 60 Tool steel with carbon 1.05%, chromium
1% and manganese 0.6%.

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 9.0. Heat Treatment
Definition:
Heat treatment is a process in which a series of heating and cooling
operations are applied to metals and alloys in solid state so as to obtain
certain desired properties. The objective of this process is to make the metal
better suited structurally and physically for some specific applications.
All the metals in solid state can be subjected to heat treatment but the
end result may vary from metal to metal. Heat treatment results in
considerable changes in steel where as the properties of hot rolled copper is
not much affected by the process.
Heat treatment may be performed for any one or more of the following
purposes.
1. Improvement of ductility,
2. Relieving internal stresses,
3. Refinement of grain size
4. To achieve desired chemical composition,
5. Increase hardness or reduce hardness.
Other effect of heat treatment includes improvement of machinability,
alterations in magnetic properties, modification of electrical properties,
development of re crystallized structure in cold worked metal.
9.1 Micro constituents of steel:
Before beginning the study of heat treatment of metals and alloys, we
should have a clear idea about metals and its micro constituents. The
following are some of the important micro constituents of steel.
Ferrite
It is a pure iron containing only 0.006% of carbon. Ferrite is strongly
magnetic at room temperature and becomes paramagnetic at 770oC.

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Cementite
It is a compound of iron and carbon. It is an extremely hard and brittle.
It contains 93.33% iron and 6.67% carbon. It is magnetic at room temperature
and become paramagnetic at 210oC. it is also called iron-carbide.
Pearlite
It is an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite and made up of
alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. 'Pearlite contains 88.5%ferrite and
11.5% of cementite. Pearlite exists below 723°C only.

Austenite
It is a solid solution of carbon in iron. It can dissolve up to 2% of carbon
at 1148oC. It is soft and ductile but stronger and less ductile than pearlite. It is
a non-magnetic phase and exists at temperature above 727°C.

94
Martensite:
It is a micro constituent of steel, which is obtained when steel is cooled
rapidly from Austenite phase to room temperature. It presents a needle like
appearance under microscope and very hard and brittle.

Ledeburite
Similar to Pearlite it consists of mixture of two phases, Austenite and
Cementite and it exists between1148° and727° C. It forms in Cast iron only.
Bainite

It forms when steel is cooled rapidly from Austenite phase to a

temperature of 650o to 500oC and held at that temperature for a Iong time. It
is an intimate mixture of Ferrite and Cementite and appears in the form of tiny
globules
Troostite
When alloy steels are tempered Martensite structure decomposes and
a new structure called Troostite is formed. It has half hardness of Martensite.
Sorbite: When hardened steel is tempered at a temperature between 450oC
to 650oC, the Martensite structure gets softened and resulting structure is
called Sorbite.

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Allotropic forms and structural transformation:

 Iron is having allotropic forms. They are alpha () iron; beta () iron and
delta () iron with body centered cubic structure (BCC) and gamma
() iron with face centered cubic structure (FCC).
 To find the allotropic changes molten pure iron was allowed to cool
and the transformations and corresponding temperatures were found
out. It is observed that above 1540 C iron exists only in liquid form.
 On cooling the liquid iron temperature remains the same until the
solidification takes place completely. Solid iron thus formed by
solidification is called as delta iron.
 Once the solidification is completed, the temperature starts to drop at
a constant rate till 1395 C. The constant drop in temperature indicates
that there is no structural transformation in this region.
 At 1395 C again one transformation takes place. Delta iron transforms
to gamma iron at this temperature, and the temperature remains the
same until the transformation is completed.
 Again on further cooling the temperature continues to drop constantly
till 910 C. this shows there is no further structural transformation till 910
C.
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  On still further cooling at 910 0C, another phase change occurs from
F.C.C. non-magnetic gamma iron to B.C.C. non-magnetic alpha iron.
 Beta iron is a nonmagnetic version of alpha iron and this form exists
between temperatures 910 C and 768 C. all these changes are
reversible on heating of iron.
Steels are categorized in to three according to the carbon content. They are
1. Low carbon steels - carbon content up to 0.3%
2. Medium carbon steels - carbon content 0.3 to 0.6%
3. High carbon steels - carbon content above 0.6%
According to the equilibrium diagram, carbon steels are classified as follows.
1. Hypo eutectoid steel - carbon content less than 0.83%
2. Eutectoid steel - carbon content 0.83%
3. Hyper eutectoid steel - carbon content above 0.83%
9.1.2 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram:
 An equilibrium diagram is the graphic representation of temperature
and composition upon the phases present in an alloy.
 It is constructed by plotting temperature along the Y-axis and
percentage of composition of the alloy along X-axis.
 The diagram shows the range of temperatures and compositions within
which the various phase changes are stable and the boundaries at
which the phase change occurs.
 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that
occur during heating and cooling and the nature and amount of
structural components that exists at any temperature.
 Besides, it establishes a correlation between the microstructure and
properties of steel and provides a basis for the understanding of the
principles of heat treatment.
 An iron carbon equilibrium diagram forms a basis for differentiating
among hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.83% of carbon) eutectoid steel
(0.83% of carbon) and hypereutectoid steel (above 0.83% of carbon
content).
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 IRON CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

 Steel containing less than 0.83% carbon is hypoeutectoid steel and is

completely austenite above the upper critical temperature. As it is
cooled below this line the iron begins to change from FCC to BCC.
 As a result, small crystals of body centered iron separate from the
austenite. The BCC crystals retain only a small amount of carbon and
are referred as crystals of ferrite.
 As the cooling proceeds, ferrite crystals grow in size at expense of
austenite. By the time the steel has reached the lower critical

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 temperature, it is composed of approximately half ferrite and half
austenite.
 At this stage the austenite contains 0.83% carbon and since austenite
can hold no more than 0.83% carbon in solid solution at 723ºC, as the
temperature drops further carbon begins to precipitate as cementite.
 All hypoeutectoid steel when cooled from austenite state will transform
in to ferrite and pearlite in the same way explained. Consider the
transformation of eutectoid steel containing 0.83% carbon.
 It will remain austenite up to the point where both UCT and LCT meet.
The transformation will begin and end at the same temperature
(723ºC).
 Since eutectoid steel contains 0.83% carbon initially it follows that the
final transformed structure will be completely pearlite.
 Consider the transformation of hypereutectoid steel. As the
temperature drops and steel crosses the UCT and nears LCT, the excess
carbon above the amount required to saturate austenite is
precipitated as cementite along the grain boundaries.
 Thus the above LCT line the structure consists of austenite and
cementite. As the temperature drops below 723º (LCT), the austenite
has become less rich in carbon and because of cementite formation.
 It contains only 0.83% carbon and it transform to pearlite as it does go
in the case of hypoeutectoid and eutectoid steels.
 The structure of hypereutectoid steel at room temperature consists of
cementite and pearlite. When the steel is heated the same changes
takes place in reverse order.
 The diagram shows iron and carbons combined to form Fe-Fe3C at the
6.67%C end of the diagram. The left side of the diagram is pure iron
combined with carbon, resulting in steel alloys.
 Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion of
the diagram. They are the eutectoid E, the hypoeutectoid A, and the
hypereutectoid B.
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  The right side of the pure iron line is carbon in combination with various
forms of iron called alpha iron (ferrite), gamma iron (austenite), and
delta iron.
 Allotropic changes take place when there is a change in crystal lattice
structure. From 2802º-2552ºF the delta iron has a body-centered cubic
lattice structure.
 At 2552ºF, the lattice changes from a body-centered cubic to a face-
centered cubic lattice type. At 1400ºF, the curve shows a plateau but
this does not signify an allotropic change.
 It is called the Curie temperature, where the metal changes its
magnetic properties.
 Two very important phase changes take place at 0.83%C and at 4.3%
C. At 0.83%C, the transformation is eutectoid, called pearlite.
gamma (austenite) --> alpha + Fe3C (cementite)

 At 4.3% C and 2066ºF, the transformation is eutectic, called ledeburite.

L(liquid) --> gamma (austenite) + Fe3C (cementite)
9.1.3. Heat Treatment Processes
Stress relieving:
 The process is employed for relieving the internal stresses. No structural
changes take place in this process. Internal stresses are those stresses,
which can exist within the body in the absence of external forces.
 These are also known as residual stresses or locked-in stresses. Internal
stresses can be developed while solidification of castings, welding,
machining, shot peening, surface hammering, electro plating, cold
working etc…
 internal stresses in certain conditions result in adverse effects. The
presence of residual stresses enhances the tendency of steel towards
warpage and dimensional instability.

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  The process consists of heating the steel to a predetermined
temperature below the lower critical temperature and holding at this
temperature for sufficient time and then cooling uniformly.
 Uniform cooling is utmost important since non-uniform cooling itself will
result in formation of residual stresses. For plain carbon steels the
maximum temperature is about 600 C.
 For high alloy steels higher temperatures are employed. For hardened
and tempered steels, a temperature 25-30 C below the tempering
temperature is employed.
Annealing:
 Annealing is heating the steel to austenite phase and holding at the
temperature for a particular time and then cooling very slowly to room
temperature.
 Cooling is generally in the furnace itself by switching off the power
supply. The holding time and temperature depends on various factors
like chemical composition of steel, size and shape of the material and
the desired final properties.
 Purpose of annealing is
1) To reduce hardness,
2) To relieve internal stresses,
3) To improve machinability,
4) To facilitate further cold working by restoring ductility,
5) To produce necessary microstructure having the desired
mechanical, physical or other properties.
Annealing temperature

Hypo eutectoid steel : 820-870 C

Eutectoid & hyper eutectoid steel : 790-840 C.

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Soaking time: One hour for sections up to 25 mm thickness and 30 minutes for
every additional 25 mm thickness
Cooling rate: For plain carbon steel :@50 C/hour
For alloy steels :@30 C/hour.
Normalizing:
 Full anneals are time consuming and considerable energy is needed to
maintain the elevated temperatures required during soaking and
furnace cooling.
 When the maximum softness is not required and cost savings are
desirable, normalizing may be specified.

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  In this process steel is heated to about 600 C above UCT for both
hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels and held at this temperature
to produce uniform austenite, and then removed from the furnace and
allowed to cool in still air.
 The result structure and properties depend on the subsequent cooling
rate. Although wide variations are possible depending upon the size
and geometry of the metal, fine pearlite with excess ferrite or
cementite is generally produced.
 One should note a key difference between full annealing and
normalizing. In full annealing furnace imposes identical cooling
conditions at all locations within the metal, which produces identical
properties.
 With normalizing cooling will be different at different locations. When
subsequent processing involves a substantial amount of machining that
may be automated, the added cost of full anneal may be justified,
since it produces a product with uniform machinability at all locations.
Hardening:
 This is the process of in which the carbon containing or alloys steels is
heated to the hardening temperature and then cooled rapidly to
room temperature by quenching in a suitable quenching medium such
as water, oil or a salt bath.
 The high hardness developed by the process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying the rapid cooling.
 Rapid cooling results the transformation of austenite into non-
equilibrium products at low temperatures.
 The product of low temperature transformation of austenite is
Martensite, which is a hard micro constituent of steel.
 Hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain
carbon steels it depends on the carbon content only.

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 Hypo eutectoid steels are hated to about 30-50 C above the UCT,
where as hyper eutectoid steels are heated about 30-50 C above the
LCT.

 In hypo eutectoid steels ferrite and pearlite transforms to austenite at

hardening temperature and this austenite transforms to martensite on
rapid quenching from the hardening temperature.
 The presence of martensite accounts for the high hardness of the
quenched steel. For hyper eutectoid steel the preferred hardening
temperature is between LCT and UCT.
 There are two advantages for the hardening temperatures in this
range. First one is the formation of cementite in the structure.
 Since cementite is harder than martensite, the formation of two-phase
structure will result in a higher hardness and wear resistance than that
obtained by martensite alone.
 Second one is that at this particular temperature range fine martensite
is attained in the final structure.
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  Successful hardening requires two condition to be met.
1. Formation of homogenous Austenite
2. Rapid cooling of steel in a suitable medium.
Hardening temperature:

Medium carbon steel : 820- 870 C

High carbon steel : 790- 830 C

Alloy steel : 1000-1300 C
 Soaking time is generally determined as one hour for every 25mm
thickness.
 The main purpose of hardening is to develop high hardness. This
enables steel to cut other material.

 Wear resistance also is improved by this process. That is the sole

purpose of this process for components like gears, shafts and bearings.
 Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably when
structural steels are hardened. Yield strength is more important since
that determines the safe limit of maximum permissible stresses.

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  Since yield strength is the limit of stress to which elasticity is maintained,
an increase in it will result in the increase of stress levels, which a
material can withstand without loss of elasticity.
 This is a very important property of steels.
 Internal stresses are developed in hardened steel due to the rapid
cooling from the heat treatment temperature.
 Hence the hardened parts are rarely used as-hardened condition since
in hardened condition steels are brittle. Hardening is there fore
followed by another process known as tempering.
 This reduces internal stresses and brittleness and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable.
 Hardening followed by tempering results in improved wear resistance
and optimum combination of strength and ductility and enhanced
elastic characteristics.
Tempering:
 Hardened steels possess many undesired properties like internal stresses
and high degree of brittleness.
 These are not desirable for certain service conditions. It is essential to
achieve a relatively stable condition in such cases.
 Such a stable state can be achieved by providing thermal energy to
the hardened steel. This process is called tempering.
 In this process the hardened steel is heated to a particular temperature
below LCT followed by cooling the steel in air at any desired rate.
 The process result in marginal reduction of hardness, strength and wear
resistance.
 Hence the very purpose of hardening is challenged. But this is
adequately compensated by the following factors.
1) Reduction of internal stresses,
2) Restoration of ductility and toughness and
3) Transformation of restored austenite.

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  The higher the tempering temperature, the more is the restored ductility
and tougher the steel. The tempering temperature should be selected
in such a way that optimum combinations of these properties are
achieved.
 Hardening followed by tempering is the only conventional process to
improve elastic limit of steel.
Case hardening and Surface hardening:
 In actual service a metal part is never subjected to uniform stresses
throughout the section.
 Rotating shafts have maximum tool marks, scratches at the surface.
Wear seizure and galling also occur at the surface and produce stress
raisers.
 Hence load-bearing components require better properties at the
surface than the interior (core).
 Surface can be hardened in the following methods
1. By changing the chemical combination of the surface of steel
which is called as case hardening
2. Without changing the chemical combination at the surface which is
called as surface hardening
Case hardening:
 In this method the surface of the steel to be hardened is induced with
carbon and nitrogen by various methods.
 The chemical composition of steel at the surface is changed by the
diffusion of induced carbon or nitrogen or other elements.
 Two different types of case hardening methods are
a) Carburizing
b) Cyaniding
i). Carburizing:
 Is the most widely used method and is used on steels having a carbon
content of 0.1-0.25%. The process is generally carried out in a
temperature range of 900-930 C.
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  The surface layer is enriched with 0.7-0.9% of carbon. The diffusion of
carbon is done by heating the steel above the transformation
temperature in contact with a material rich with carbon.
 This material may be solid liquid or gaseous. Since the solubility of
carbon in austenite is more, a fully austenite face is desired for the
process.
ii). Cyaniding:

 In this process the parts to be treated are immersed in a liquid bath at

800-960 C of Sodium Cyanide (NaCN) with the concentration of 25-
90%.

 A measured amount of air is then passed through the molten bath.

NaCN reacts with oxygen and get oxidized.

1. 2NaCN + O2 2NaCNO
2. 2NaCNO + O2 Na2CO3 + CO + 2N
3. 2CO CO2 + C

 Carbon and nitrogen formed in atomic form diffuses in steel to form a

thin wear resistant layer of carbonitride. Usually this process requires 30-
90 minutes for completion.
 For obtaining case depth from 0.5 to 2mm, process is carried out at
higher temperature 950 0C in a bath containing 8% of NaCN, 82% of
BaCl2 and 10% of NaCl. This process takes 1.5-6hrs for completion.
 For a case depth of 0.13 to 0.35mm the bath is maintained at a
temperature of 850 0C. the higher the temperature at a given cyanide
level the higher is the percentage of carbon diffusion.
 After cyaniding the pieces are taken out and quenched in water or oil.
The parts are then subjected to low temperature tempering.

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  This process is not suitable for parts, which are subjected to shock,
fatigue and impact because the addition of nitrogen has adverse
effects on such properties of steel.
10.0. Welding
Welding is a process of joining components permanently. Welding occurs
when sufficient temperature or pressure or both applied.
Classification of welding process

Fusion welding process

The fusing of two or more pieces of metal together by using the heat
produced from an electric arc welding machine.
Examples: Arc welding, Resistance welding, Laser beam welding, Electron
beam welding

Solid state welding processes

In this process coalescence is created using temperatures less than the
melting temperature of the metals being joined. Pressure is used.
Examples: Friction welding, ultrasonic welding

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Arc welding
 The arc is struck between the electrode and the metal. It then heats
the metal to a melting point.
 The electrode is then removed, breaking the arc between the
electrode and the metal. This allows the molten metal to “freeze” or
solidify.
 The arc is like a flame of intense heat that is generated as the electrical
current passes through a highly resistant air gap.

SMAW
 Also referred to as “Stick Welding”
 Used for everything from pipeline welding, farm repair and complex
fabrication.
 Uses a “stick” shaped electrode.
 Can weld: steel, cast iron, stainless steel, etc.
 Can also hard face with correct electrode.

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GMAW welding
 Also referred to as “MIG” welding
 Uses a shield gas and a continuous wire electrode
 Used for all types of fabrication

 Great for thin metals up to ¼”

 Excellent speed of deposition
 Used for metals such as: steel, aluminum and stainless steel.
GTAW welding
 Also referred to as “TIG” Welding
 Uses a shield gas, a non-consumable tungsten electrode and a hand
fed filler rod
 Excellent for welding thin metals, pipeline welding and exotic metals
 Highly skilled labor needed for this process

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Oxygen/ Fuel Welding
 Utilizes oxygen and a fuel gas to heat metal until it is in a molten state
and fuse multiple pieces of metal together. Can be used with or
without a filler rod.
 Great for brazing dissimilar metals together.
 Older technology that can be replaced by GTAW

Applications of welding:
• Buildings and bridges structures;
• Automotive, ship and aircraft constructions;
• Pipe lines;
• Tanks and vessels.
• Railroads;
• Machinery elements.
11.0. Forging
Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or
squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings.
The process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the
metal to a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note
that the forging process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry)
process, as metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured
(as in the casting process).

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Types of Forging
 Hand forging :- Hand forging is emplayed only to shape a small
number of light forgings chiefly in repair shops.
 Hammer forgings :- Usually used for small item forging.
 Press forging :- Usually used for heavy item forging.
 Machine forging :- For medium sized and large articles requiring
very heavy blows.
 Drop forging :- For mass production of identical parts.
 Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. Round swaging
dies and V dies also are used in pairs or with a flat die. Operations
performed on open die presses include:
 Drawing out or reducing the cross-section of an ingot or billet to
lengthen it.
 Upsetting or reducing the length of an ingot or billet to a larger
diameter.
 Upsetting, drawing out, and piercing--processes sometimes
combined with forging over a mandrel for forging rough-contoured
rings.

113
Forged products
 In automotive applications, forged components are commonly
found at points of shock and stress. Forged automobile components
include connecting rods, crankshafts, wheel spindles, axle beams,
pistons, gears, and steering arms.
 Forgings are also used in helicopters, piston-engine planes,
commercial jets, and supersonic military aircraft. Many aircraft are
"designed around" forgings and contain more than 450 structural
forgings, including hundreds of forged engine parts.
 "Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers,
hammers, sledgers, wrenches, garden implements, and surgical
tools are almost always produced through forging.

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 12.0. Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in the process
• Steps in casting
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
Advantages
 Can create complex part geometries
 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
 Can produce very large parts
 Some casting methods are suited to mass production
Disadvantages
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g.,
sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
 Environmental problems
Parts Made by casting
 Big parts: engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood
burning stoves, machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big
statues, and pump housings
 Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, and frying pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous
Mold in casting
 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling

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  Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster,
ceramic, and metal

In Figure, Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape
of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more
complex and requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity
Two Categories of Casting Process
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold which must
be destroyed to remove casting
Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which can be
used many times to produce many castings
Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material

Sand Casting

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Sand casting Mold Terms
• Mold consists of two halves:
– Cope = upper half of mold
– Drag = bottom half
• Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
• The two halves separate at the parting line
Forming the mold cavity
• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which has
the shape of the part
• When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has desired shape
of cast part
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal as it
solidifies and cools
• Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain shape
Cores in the mold cavity
• The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part
• In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a
core, placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior geometry of
part
• In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
Gating System
 Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside of
mold
 Consists of a downsprue, through which metal enters a runner leading
to the main cavity
 At top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash
and turbulence as the metal flows into downsprue
Riser
 Riser in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for
shrinkage during solidification

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  The riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to
satisfy its function
Sand Casting process cycle
Mold-making -
A sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the
mold.
Clamping -
Binding of the both halves of molds
Pouring -
Molten metal ladled and poured into the mold.
Cooling -
The solidification and cooling of molten metal for a
predetermined solidification time
Removal/Shakeout -
After predetermined time has passed, breaking the mold
Trimming -
Removing the extra parts called flash by cutting from casting
Advantages:
 Can produce very large parts.
 Many material options.
 Low tooling and equipment cost.
 Scrap can be recycled.
 Short lead time possible.
Disadvantages:
 Poor material strength.
 Poor surface finish and tolerance.
 Secondary machining often required.
 Low production rate.
 High labor cost.
Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases, gears, pulleys

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Investment casting
 Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes where
molten metal is poured into an expendable ceramic mold
 The mold is formed by using a wax pattern
 Using ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold
 Investment casting also called "lost-wax casting"
 Lost -wax processes increases production time and cost

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Advantages:
 Can form complex shapes
 Many material options
 High strength parts
 Excellent surface finish and accuracy
 Little need for secondary machining
Disadvantages:
 Time Consuming process
 High labor cost
 High tooling cost
 Long lead time possible
Applications: Turbine blades, pipe fittings, lock parts, hand tools, jewelry.

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12.1. Casting defects – causes and remedies
Shrinkage and draws

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. On heavy 1)Incorrect gating and 1) Use risers to feed

sections, or at the feeding heavy sections and
joint of change of ensure that they are
sections. filled with hot metal.
2. Saucer-shaped 2) Employ chills where a
depressions on heavy section or boss
heavy sections cannot be fed directly
with a riser

MISRUN

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. Holes in the thin 1. Low pouring temp. 1) Provide hotter

sections of a casting. 2. Low fluidity metal at cupola
Edges are smooth and 3. Hard mould spout
well rounded. 4. Core shift 2) Reduce heat
2. As a line, when two 5. Very high moisture losses in ladle
streams of metal have content 3) Increase carbon
met but not fused 6. Pouring practice and phosphorous
together. 4) Avoid excessive
ramming

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SLAG

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. Similar to 1. Dirty metal 1. Remove all slag

SHRINKAGE and 2. Incorrect gating from metal before
DRAWS pouring.
2. Cavities are 2. Incorporate skim
generally more gates or strainer
saucer shaped core in runner
and smoother. systems.
3. Slag may be seen 3. Keep runner bush
before cleaning full whilst pouring.
the casting

POROSITY

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. Machined 1. Wrong type of 1. Reduce silicon or

surfaces show metal phosphorus
cavities in thick 2. High moisture content.
sections or content 2. Degas and
2. A series of 3. Pouring practice scavenge well.
pinholes on
machined skin

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SCABS

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1) Rough “warty” 1. Uneven ramming 1. Ram more evenly

excretions on 2. Incorrect gating 2. Altering metal
surface of casting, 3. Improperly dried mixture
mainly on heavy moulds 3. Introducing silicon
sections 4. High clay content into ladle
in moulding sand 4. Reduce moisture
5. Avoid splashing
metal down
runners and risers

DISTORTION

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1) Casting shows 1. Uneven mould 1. Ram evenly and

swelling on hardness due to firmly
surface insufficient 2. Increase weight
ramming to on moulds and
withstand metal ensure it is
pressure distributed evenly
2. Poor weighting
practice

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CRACKS

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. Hairline cracks 1. High dry strength 1. Ram softer to

showing on of sand. allow casting to
casting 2. Cores too hard contract
2. When broken, 3. Casting strains 2. Reduce oil in
discoloration 4. Mechanical cores
shows that crack reasons 3. Gate evenly to
was produced avoid these
while casting was 4. Break mould to
hot allow of free
3. No discoloration contraction
shows cold crack 5. Take care in
breaking off risers

BLOW HOLES

APPEARANCE CAUSES REMEDIES

1. Rough shaped 1. Low vent on 1. Increase vent by

holes occurring molding or core use of vent wire
on the outside of sand or open sand
the casting or in 2. Hard ramming 2. Avoid excess
the thicker 3. High moisture ramming
sections content 3. Reduce moisture
2. May be found just 4. Very hard cores to minimum,
below surface on 5. Incomplete 4. Reduce oil in
machining. baking sand
3. Sections may 6. Damp pouring 5. Bake until center
hollow ladles is dry and hard.

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Injection molding
Injection molding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from
both thermoplastics and thermosetting plastic or other materials.
 For this purpose injection molding machine is used.
 Used for manufacturing of variety of parts from small components to
entire body panel of cars.
 Typical parts are fittings, containers, bottle tops, housings, and more.
 Injection molding process is primary manufacturing process.

Mold
Mold is a hollowed out block used when components are to be made
from plastics or rubber glass etc.
 The mold is made from metal, usually either steel or aluminium.
 Designing and making mold for injection molding is more
complicated than making extrusion die
Functions of mold
 To give desired shape to the part
 Cool and cure the material
 Eject the part properly
 To distribute the melt
 To withstand clamping forces and injection pressure

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Steps involved in injection molding
• Granulated or powdered plastic is fed from a hopper into the injection
molding machine.
• The rotating screw inside barrel carries the plastic along the barrel to
the mold.
• Heaters surround the barrel melt the plastic as it travels along the
barrel.

• The screw is forced back as the melted plastic collects at the end of
the barrel.
• Once enough plastic has collected a hydraulic ram pushes the screw
forward injecting the plastic through a sprue into a mould cavity.
• The mould is warmed before injecting and the plastic is injected quickly
to prevent it from hardening before the mould is full.
• Pressure is maintained for a short time to prevent the material creeping
back during setting (hardening).
• This prevents shrinkage and hollows, therefore giving a better quality
product.
• The molding is left to cool before removing (ejected) from the mould.
The molding takes on the shape of the mould cavity.
Advantages
• High production rate
• Can process a wide range of materials
• Relatively low labor
• Less or no finishing of parts required
• Scrap material can be recycled and reused
• Low operation cost
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 • Smooth surfaces
• Full automation is possible with injection molding
• More uniform melting
Disadvantages
• High initial equipment investment
• High startup and running costs
• Difficulty in designing molds
• Contamination of raw material affect the quality of final product
• Requires high pressures
• Problems with required heating/cooling of the plastic material

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