GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

Unit 3 : Developmental process

Ms. P. Padma priya

Clinical psychologist
Department of Psychiatry
 CONTENTS

• Cognitive Development: Piaget

• Moral Development: Kohlberg

• Psycho-social Development: Erikson

 Learning Objectives

• Developing skills for applying psychological knowledge to real life

situations.
 Cognitive
Development: Piaget
• Jean Piaget
✓ Born: August 9, 1986, Switzerland
✓Died: September 16, 1980
✓Parents: Eldest son of Arthur Piaget and Rebecca Jackson
✓Education: Received Ph.d from University of Neuchatel in 1918.
✓Wife: Married to Valentine Chateney in 1923.
✓Children: 3 children namely Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent whose
intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by
Piaget.
 Introduction
• Swiss, natural scientist: biologist and epistemologist (the theory of
knowledge).
• Best known for his research on children’s cognitive development.
• Interested in how children learnt and their increasing capacity to
understand the world through the process of maturation (growing
up).
• Studied children from infancy to adolescence (including his own)
through observation and setting exercises and tests for the children to
complete.
 What is Cognition?

• The term cognition is derived from the Latin word “cognoscere”

which means “to know” or “to recognize” or “to conceptualize.”

• Cognition is “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge

and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.”
 Cognitive development

• Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think and

understand.

• The acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve.

• It is the process by which people’s thinking changes across the life span.

• It is the growing apprehension and adaptation to the physical and social

environment.
 How cognitive development occurs?
• Cognitive development is gradual and orderly changes by which mental process
becomes more complex and sophisticated.

• The essential development of cognition is the establishment of new schemas.

• Assimilation and Accommodation are both the processes of the ways of Cognitive
development.

• The equilibration is the symbol of a new stage of the Cognitive Development.

 Jean Piaget
• Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that
intelligence changes as children grow. A child's cognitive development
is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or
construct a mental model of the world.
• Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate
capacities and environmental events, and children pass through a
series of stages.
• The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by
which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who
can reason and think using hypothesis.
 Piaget theory of cognitive development
Stage Age Goal Cognitive Processes
Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence Schema
Assimilation
Preoperational 2 to 7 years Old Symbolic thought Accommodation
Equilibrium
Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

 Core concepts of Piaget cognitive
development
• Adaptation: It is the way in which people change their perceptions
about their world as they learn new things.
• It is the process of changing the understanding of the world, based on
new information from the environment.
• In order to adapt, one must be able to challenge and restructure what
they know to be true about the world.
 Four concepts of adaptation
1. Schema:
• The organization is the tendency in human beings to integrate
thoughts and experiences into a cognitive structure and its
fundamental base is in logic. This structure is termed by Piaget as
Schema (a way of organizing knowledge).
• For example, an infant is originally capable of either looking at
objects or grasping them.
• Gradually, integration of these two separate processes occurs
enabling an infant to look and grasp something at the same time. This
integration process becomes the cognitive structure.
2. Equilibration:
• It is a biological drive to obtain a balance between schema and
environment.
• Cognitive equilibrium is an important factor in cognitive development,
apart from maturation, physical environment, and social interaction.
• This is an ongoing process that occurs more as the child moves from one
stage to another.
• Equilibration forms the base for cognitive development as it is this process
that crystallizes and converts mental representations.
• A state of disequilibrium occurs when a child faces discrepancy between
schema and environment. This motivates the child to achieve equilibrium.
3. Assimilation:
• In assimilation process, the child tries to modify or change new
experiences to fit into schemas.
• It is a process that includes adding new information to a schema in a
way that makes sense.
• In order to make sense, the new information must fit well with the
changing schema.
4. Accommodation:
• It is the process of re – organizing schemas to accommodate new
information. It is a method of integrating old information with new
information.
 Sensorimotor stage (Sensorimotor
intelligence)
• Age range: birth to 2 years
• According to the Piaget theory, children like to explore at the
sensorimotor stage. They want to watch, hear, taste, touch things
around them.
• They learn about their environment by sensation: watching, grasping,
sucking and manipulating objects they can get their ways and hands
on. They generally don’t appear to be thinking about what they do.
• Piaget further divided into sensorimotor stage into six substages, each
sighted with establishment of a new skill.
1. Reflexes (sucking, following objects with eyes, grasping) - (the first
month)
2. Primary circular reactions (repetition of a movement that initially occurs
by chance) – ( 2-4 months)
3. Secondary circular reactions (repeating actions with intention and co
ordination) – (between 4 and 8 months)
4. Coordination of reactions (a coordinated movement that is goal-directed)
- (8 to 12 months)
5. Tertiary circular reactions (experimenting behaviors to meet goals) – (12 -
18 months)
6. Early representational thought (beginning of creativity) – (18-24 months).
 Sensorimotor stage
Object Permanence:
• Object permanence is the awareness of continued existence of the
objects and people, even if they are cannot be seen, heard or sensed.
• An infant at this stage believes that the objects or people out of
sight, stop existing. Piaget referred to this as ‘lack of object
permanence.’
✓2 months – surprise when an object disappears.
✓6 – 8 months – looking for missing object
✓8 – 12 months – reaching for or searching for completely hidden toy.
 The Preoperational Period
• Age range: 2 to 7 years old
• The term preoperational stage means the stage that is preliminary to
logical operations.
• The child at this stage builds on object permanence and proceeds to
develop abstract thinking, which includes language skills.
• Acquiring language is considered to be the most important achievement of
this stage.
• Along with it comes the understanding of past and future.
• Abstract thinking, at this stage, is limited to an intuitive grasp of logical
concepts in some areas.
• Eg: 3+2 = 5 but not 5 – 3 = 2
 Key features of this stage
✓Symbolic thinking - The child learns to form a mental representation
of the world through which describing people, events, and feelings,
becomes possible.
✓Decentration – the child at this stage cannot focus attention on more
than one aspect of an object at the same time.
✓Egocentric thinking – The views of other people are not easily
accepted though they become aware of it is called egocentrism.
Egocentrism is about the intellectual limit and not selfishness.
✓Animism - The child treats the inanimate objects as if it is a living
being.
✓Seriation - The child starts to mentally sort things into a group
✓Lack of cause-effect relationship - The child does not understand
cause effect relationship clearly at this stage
 Concrete Operational Stage
• Age range: 7 to 12 years old
• Concrete operations connote the intellectual tools developed by the
child during this stage. The operations are concrete in the sense that
it is about the real world of objects and events.
• This is the period when the child builds on and gains mastery over
abstract thinking.
• The child develops logical thinking, the ability for multitasking, logical
sequencing, and understand the principle of conservation.
Key Features:
✓Logical thinking – Only involves inductive logic - which is about a
child generalizing out of a specific experience, and it happens
gradually.
✓Thinking becomes less egocentric and more socio-centric

✓The ability of logical reasoning and problem-solving that develops

during this stage.

✓Understanding the concept of reversibility is one of the most

important developments in this stage.
 Formal Operational Stage
• Age range: 11 years and older
• The child begins to consider new possibilities and consequences of actions
rather than relying on previous experiences.
• The child acquires abilities of abstract propositions, hypothetical thinking,
deductive reasoning, inter-propositional logic, and reflective thinking.
• The capacities developed during this stage are:
✓Abstract thinking
✓Hypothetic-deductive reasoning
✓Transitivity
✓Propositional thought
✓Reflective thinking
 ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
• The psycho social development is based on theories of personality.
• Erickson was a psychologist and identified that we go through eight
stages of development.
• Interaction between society and individual which shapes the
individual of the person.
• Constant social pressure – crisis is present
• A Conflict between personal impulses and social world.
• Failure to resolve the crises – negative impact on the psychological
and social development of a person.
 EIGHT STAGES OF PSYCHO SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. Trust vs Mistrust (Birth to 18 months)
• The first stage is associated with infancy.
• When the infant feels secure, comfortable with the parents and their needs like food, love, care are met then trust
develops.
• Lack of security leads to mistrust.
• If the environment is too protective the child becomes too dependent.
• If there is too much of mistrust the child becomes pessimistic.
• Hope is the basic strength at this stage.
2. Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years)
• This stage is associated with toddler age.
• The child needs to acquire a sense of personal control over physical activities.
• The child tries to control the bodily functions.
• If success is achieved it leads to autonomy and if not shame and doubt.
• Will is the basic strength.
3. Initiative vs Guilt exploration: (3 to 6 years)
• This stage is associated with preschool age.
• Pre schoolers tend to take control of their own behavior.
• Children tend to be very active and also need to explore new avenues.
• During this period, parents guidance is necessary. If they are not successful in completing their task they
develop guilt.
• Purpose is the basic strength.
4. Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
• This stage is associated with school age.
• A child needs to learn skills in the school and also compete with peers.
• The child tries to complete the task undertaken.
• Competence is the basic strength.
5. Identity vs Role confusion (12 to 19 years)
• This stage is associated with adolescent age.
• Physical changes occur.
• Teens need to develop a sense of identity and be truthful to self identity.
• Fidelity is the basic strength.

6. Intimacy vs Isolation (20 to 45 years)

• This stage is associated with early adulthood period.
• The young adult needs to make personal commitments and relationships with another person.
• Failure to maintain relationships may lead to isolation.
• Love is the basic strength.
7. Generativity vs Stagnation ( 45 to 65 years)
• This stage is associated with middle adulthood age.
• Adults need to be productive and creative at work.
• An adult should take care of children and also contribute to the welfare of the society.
• Failure to do so leads to sense of stagnation.
• Care is the basic strength.
8. Integrity vs Despair (65 and above years)
• This stage is associated with old age.
• A sense of accomplishment will be present.
• Elders think about lost chances in their life.
• Wisdom is the basic strength.
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT: KOHLBERG
• Moral development is the gradual development of an individuals
concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social
attitudes and certain behavior.
 Lawrence Kohlberg
• Lawrence Kohlberg – proposed this theory.
• (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)
• Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he
is best known for his theory of stages of moral development.
• A close follower of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development,
Kohlberg's work reflected and extended his ideas, at the same time
creating a new field within psychology: "moral development".
• Kohlberg was one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th
century.
 Kohlberg's theory
• In a 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are now known as Kohlberg's stages
of moral development, these stages explain the development of moral
reasoning.
• Kohlberg’s theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages - each more
adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last.
• He determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned
with justice and that its development continued throughout the life span.
Kohlberg’s Six Stages (3 levels of moral
reasoning)
 Level 1: Preconventional Morality
• Ages: 4 to 10 years
• A person is motivated by obedience to authority.
• Commonly associated with young children
• Involves little thought about morality
• Moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking the rules.
Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange

• Earliest stage of moral development. • Children account for individual points of view
• Common in young children • Judge actions based on how they serve
• Children see rules as fix and absolute individual needs.
• Obeying the rules is important to avoid • Focuses on individualism and different
punishment. perspectives.
• Morality is motivated solely by punishment. • Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she
• Determines a sense of right and wrong by is generous
what is punished and what is not punished. • Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish
deed he/she does
 EXAMPLES:
• Stage 1:
“ I will keep quiet so that teacher won’t get mad at me”

• Stage 2:
“ I will let you copy mine if you do my homework.”
 2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• Ages: 10 to 15 years
• People focus on following social norms and customs.
• Begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
• Reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs.
Stage 3: Interpersonal relationships Stage 4: Maintaining social order

• Also known as "good boy-good girl" orientation. • People begin to consider society as a whole when
• It is focused on living up to social expectations and making judgments.
roles. • The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
• There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice“ the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
• Consider of how choices influence relationships. • Please individuals to maintaining social order by
• Emphasizes the maintenance happy interpersonal following social norms, customs, and laws.
relationships and pleasing others. • Becomes aware of the wider rules of society to avoid
• A need to avoid rejection, disaffection or disapproval guilt.
from others. • A need not to be criticized by a true authority figure.
 EXAMPLES:

• Stage 3:

“ I will buy that dress so that my friends will like

me.”

• Stage 4:

“You should not cut the class because it’s against

school rules.”
 3. Postconventional Morality
• Ages: Adolescence to adulthood
• People look beyond convention to determine moral norms and
appropriate social interactions.
• Judgement is based on self chosen principles
• Moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
Stage 5: Social contract & Individual rights Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

• Becomes aware there are times when they will • Moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical
work against rules or the interest of particular principles and abstract reasoning.
individuals. • People follow these internalized principles of
• Emphasizes on the social contract and the justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules
maintenance of individual rights. • Moral judgement is motivated by one’s own
conscience.
 EXAMPLES:
• Stage 5:
“ It is her own decision, we should just respect that.”

• Stage 6:
“If abortion became legal in our country, I will be one of
the people who will be against it because it’s against
God’s Law.”
Thank you…